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/ 


THE AUTOMOBILE 

ITS CONSTRUCTION AND MANAGEMENT 


TRANSLATED FROM GERARD LAVERGNE’S 
“MANUEL THEORETIQUE ET PRATIQUE 
DE L’AUTOMOBILE SUR ROUTE,” WITH 
ADDITIONS AND NEW ILLUSTRATIONS 


REVISED AND EDITED BY PAUL N. HASLUCK 
AUTHOR OF “LATHEWORK,” “MILLING 
MACHINES AND PROCESSES,” ETC., EDITOR 
OF “WORK” AND “BUILDING WORLD” 


WITH 536 ILLUSTRATIONS 


DAVID M C KAY 

PUBLISHER 

PHILADELPHIA 


t 







' 


















/ 


/sr 



PREFACE. 

! — 

I have used Gerard Lavergne’s highly esteemed work, “ Manuel 
Theorgjjdque et Pratique de 1’Automobile sur Route,” as a basis for 
the present treatise, which, however, is distinguished in many 
important particulars from a mere translation. 

In the endeavour to present a thoroughly up-to-date work, the 
original book has been re.-written throughout in a more condensed 
style, and the space thus gained is here occupied by entirely new 
matter descriptive of mechanisms that have made their appearance 
within the last year or so. For instance, the chapters on boilers, 
steam motors, carburetters, petrol motors, steam and petrol cars have 
been re-cast and considerably amplified, quite a large proportion 
of the present text having had no place in M. Lavergne’s treatise. 

Important additions also have been made to the historical 
chapter, the early history of mechanical road locomotion in England 
being here treated in detail. Many of the tables of results of 
races, trials, and efficiency tests here given are not to be found 
in M. Lavergne’s work, and this matter will, it is believed, be 
appreciated highly. Many of the original illustrations have been 
superseded by new ones, and a great number of additional blocks 
have been inserted ; in fact, of the 536 illustrations included in this 
book about 200 are new, whilst some others have been considerably 
improved, neither trouble nor expense having been spared in pre¬ 
paring special reproductions of drawings to enhance the value of 
the text. 

A serious deficiency of the original work was its lack of an 
index. In the present work an index containing more than 4,000 
items is provided. The very considerable amount of labour spent 
in preparing it has been cheerfully undertaken, in the confident 
belief that a full index to the mass of information contained in 
the book cannot fail to be of considerable value to all who are 
interested in the automobile industry. 

In his preface to the original work, the French author thus 
describes its scope and object: “ Without wishing to disparage the 
merit of previous publications, it seemed that there was room for 
a general treatment of the subject. Thus the work we present 


VI 


PREFACE. 


to the public interested in automobiles is synthetic. A brief historic 
notice forms an introduction to the agents, steam, oil, and electricity, 
from which mechanical cars derive their energy, and after a rapid 
examination of the latest possibilities of compressed or liquefied gas, 
hot water, acetylene, and alcohol, the work passes in review the elements 
that compose an automobile motor (with calculation of the power it 
must have to run a given car and the methods of measuring its 
force when constructed), gear for transmitting the movement of the 
motor to the car wheels, axles, wheels, tyres, springs, frame, body, 
brakes, and lubricators. This analysis having been made, the 
elements are grouped according to the chief types of existing cars. 
As these types are very numerous, only representative ones have 
been selected for detailed description; of others it suffices to point 
out the characteristic features. Then the notable results officially 
or otherwise confirmed are recorded, and, finally, attention is directed 
to the lines on which progress in the direction of increased efficiency 
is to be sought. 

“ This book does not pretend to teach constructors ; the most 
it can do is to call their attention to points which they appear to 
have neglected, or perhaps altogether ignored. The large numbers 
who are embarking in the new industry may possibly through this 
account of what has been already done be spared some of those 
trials and labours which constitute the heavy tribute, in sheer loss, 
levied on human activity by what might be styled re-inventions. 

“ The book will show the engineer how the mechanism with 
which he is familiar is applied in motor construction, how the 
technical difficulties arising from this novel application may be 
overcome, and what yet remains to be done in this rapidly growing 
industry. Those who, not being engineers, have but a slight know¬ 
ledge of mechanics, but who are nevertheless interested in auto¬ 
mobiles, either because they desire to use them or because they see 
in them the possibilities of an industrial revolution, need no longer 
be discouraged by the apparent complexity of the subject, for the 
writer has endeavoured to make his descriptions as clear and as 
free from technicalities as the character of the subject would admit.” 

The Metric system of weights and measures is adhered to 
throughout this book, as being the system countenanced by scien¬ 
tists, and as the only one having even the possibility of becoming 
universal. This system is in general use all over the civilised world 
(the English-speaking countries excepted), whilst even in the United 


PREFACE. 


Vll 


States of America its use is legal, and in Great Britain is per¬ 
mitted. The whole system is based on the length unit known as 
the metre, which is nearly one ten-millionth part of the earth’s 
meridian quadrant; the British equivalent of the metre is 39-37079 
inches. It is convenient to give here the names of the several 
Metric units, their abbreviations, and their equivalents in British 
measures, though throughout this work the reader’s requirements 
have been met by presenting all weights and measures in both 
Metric and British terms. 

I he abbreviations of Metric units given below are in accordance 
with a decision made by the International Committee of Weights 
and Measures, 1890. First is printed the unit in its unabridged 
spelling, then the abbreviation, and lastly the English equivalent, 
whose accuracy may be relied upon. 

Units of Length. Kilometre , km., = 0 62138 (nearly |) statute 
mile, about 1093-6 yds. Metre, m., = 3937079 in., or 1 09363 yd. 
Decimetre, dm., = 3-93707 in. Centimetre, cm., = 0-3937 in. Milli¬ 
metre, mm., = 0 03937 in. 

Units of Surface. Metre Carre or Square Metre, m. 2 , = 1*19603 
sq. yd. or 10'76429 sq. ft. 'Decimetre Carre or Square Decimetre, 
dm. 2 , = 15-50059 sq. in. Centimetre Carre or Square Centimetre, 
cm. 2 , = 0" 155005 sq. in. Millimetre Carre or Square Millimetre, 
mm. 2 , = 000155 sq. in. 

Units of Volume. Metre Cube or Cubic Metre, m. 3 , = 35 31658 
cub. ft. or 220-09667 gall. Stere, s., same as cubic metre. Deci¬ 
metre Cube or Cubic Decimetre, dm. 3 , = 0 03531 cub. ft. Centimetre 
Cube or Cubic Centimetre, cm. 3 , = 0'06102 cub. in. Millimetre Cube 
or Cubic Millimetre, mm. 3 , = 0-00006 cub. in. 

Units of Capacity. Litre (same as Decimetre Cube), 1., = 0-22009 
gall, or 61-02705 cub. in. Decilitre, dl., = 0-022009 gall., or 0-17607 
pt. Centilitre, cl., = 0 017607 pt., or 0-07042 gill. Millilitre, ml, = 
0-00704 gill. 

Units of Weight. Tonne, t., 0 9842 ton, about 2,204-6 lb. 
Quintal Metrique, q.,= 220 46212 lb. Kilogramme, kg., = 2 20462 lb., 
that is 2 lb. 3 oz. 4-38 dr., avoirdupois. Gramme, g., = 5-64383 drams 
avoirdupois, 15"43234 grn. troy, or 0 03215 oz. troy. Decigramme, 
dg., = 1*54323 grn., troy. Centigramme, eg. = 0-15432 grn., troy. 
Milligramme, mg., = 0 01543 grn., troy. 

Units of Work. The French Force de Cheval- Vapeur is 
equivalent to 09863373 of Watt’s horse-power, adopted in Great 



VI11 


PREFACE. 


Britain and in the United States, which unit is defined as 550 foot¬ 
pounds (ft.-lb.) per second, or 33,000 ft.-lb. per minute. The differ¬ 
ence, therefore, between the two units amounts to but little more 
than 136 per cent, in favour of the British unit, and in most cases 
this difference can be quite ignored. In this work, “Force de Cheval- 
^ apeur and “Horse Power” (li.p.) are considered as identical 
except where peculiar conditions render distinction advisable. The 
unit kilogrammetre (kgm.) is the metric representative of foot¬ 
pound (ft.-lb.) in the British system; the metric unit is defined 
as the work done in raising 1 kg. a vertical distance of 1 m. and 
the British unit as the work done in raising ^ lb. a vertical distance 
of 1 ft.; thus 1 kgm. 7*23311 ft.-lb. 

Compound Units. Most, if not all, of the engineering terms 
employing metric units have convenient English equivalents ; thus so 
many “ grammes or kilogrammes per square millimetre ” is the corre¬ 
sponding expression to so many “ pounds per square inch 1 g. per 
mm. 2 or 1 t. per m. 2 = 1*422 lb. per sq. in. ; 1 kg. per mm. 2 = 1,422*282 
lb. or 0*63494 ton per sq. in. ; 1 g. per cm. 2 = 0 01422 lb. per sq. in. ; 

1 kg. per cm. 2 = 14*22282 lb. per sq. in. 

Simple arithmetical calculations suffice for the conversion of 
these terms when once the value of the several units has been ascer¬ 
tained, and even much of this simple arithmetic can be dispensed 
with if a book of tables be consulted. 

It is a pleasing duty gratefully to acknowledge my obligation to 
the proprietors of The Automotor Journal, 44, St. Martin’s Lane, 
London, W.C., who have permitted me to use unreservedly any of 
the illustrations, and to excerpt any of the matter, that have 
appeared, m that journal, and have gratuitously lent the blocks of 
selected illustrations, thus affording the opportunity to incorporate 
with the original book important additions and records of the most 
recent developments in automobiles. 

P. N. HASLUCK. 


La Belle Sauvage, London, 
August , 1902. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 


Preface .. 

List of Illustrations ......... 

CHAPTER I. 

Evolution of the Automobile. 

Seventeenth. Century Patents—Cugnot’s Steam Trolley—Sir Isaac Newton’s Steam 
Carriage—James Watt and his Contemporaries—American Inventions—English 
Inventions early in the Nineteenth Century—Push-foot Schemes and the Gordon 
Steam Carriage — Early Road Trials of Steam Carriages—Hancock’s Inventions 
and those of his Contemporaries—The Attack on Early Automobilism—Extor¬ 
tionate Turnpike Tolls on Automobiles—Development in ‘England between 1840 
and 1895—Development in France before 1870—The Awakening in France—The 
Steam Carriages of A. Bollee, Serpollet, de Dion-Bouton, and others—Petrol 
Motors—The Application of Electricity ......... 1 

CHAPTER II. 

Motive Agents for Automobiles. 

Usual Forms of Motive Power—Available Forms of Motive Power—Specific Power— 

Coal and Coke and their Utilisation in Steam Boilers—Ether instead of Water in 
Boilers—Petroleum and Petrol Spirit and their Utilisation—Electricity and its 
low Specific Power—Eventual Substitute for these Three Agents—Gas and Air 
under Pressure—Compressed Air as Motive Power for Tramcars—The First 
Compressed Air Car—Compressed Air Motors—Liquefied Gases as Motive 
Agents—Liquid Air—Hot Water as Motive Agent—Acetylene as Motive 
Agent—Calcium Carbide—Liquid Acetylene—Alcohol instead of Petrol Spirit— 
Heavy Distillery Oils as Motive Agent—Benzine Locomotives—Gas Motors . .19 

CHAPTER III. 

Steam Boilers for Automobiles. 

Essentials of an Automobile Boiler—Kinds of Automobile Boilers—Tubular 
Boilers—Fire-tube Boilers—Water-tube Boilers—Field-type Boilers—Instan¬ 
taneous Vaporisation Boilers—Limitations of Water-tube Boilers—Liquid Fuel 
Burners ............... 35 

CHAPTER IV. 

Steam Motors for Automobiles. 

Adaptability of the Steam Motor to Automobiles—The Essentials of an Auto¬ 
mobile Motor—Simple Expansion Alternating Motors with Oscillating Cylinders 
—Steam-hammer Type Motors—Simple Expansion Alternating Motors with 
Stationary Cylinders, Two-, Three-, Four-, and Six-cylinder Types—Double 
Expansion Alternating Motors, Two- and Three-cylinder Types—Rotary' Steam 
Motors —Epicymloidal Steam Motors—General Considerations with regard to 
Steam Motors ............. 63 

CHAPTER V. 

Carburetters for Petrol Motors. 

Petroleum and its Distillations—Petrol Spirit, French and English—The Varying 
Density of Petrol Spirit with the Temperature—Table of Densities—The 
Advantages and Disadvantages of Peti’ol Spirit compared with Petroleum—The 
Explosive or Carburetted Mixture—Three Classes of Carburetters—Bubbling 
Carburetters—Constant-level Carburetters—Surface Carburetters—Wick Car¬ 
buretters — Atomising Carburetters — Carburetters on Mixed Principles— 
Mechanical Distributors and Distributor-Carburetters—Petroleum Carburetters— 
Motors without Carburetters—General Remarks on Carburetters—Risk of Fire 
with Carburetters ............. 84 




X 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER VI. 

Petrol Motors. page 

Leau de Rochas or Otto Four-stroke Cycle—Two-stroke Cj’cles—Six-stroke Cycle 
Inlet and Exhaust \ alves and Systems of Distribution—Regulation of Motor 
Power Modifying Compression—Accelerators—Electric Ignition of Charge— 

1 rimary and Secondary Batteries for Ignition—Dynamos and Magneto-machines 
for Ignition Ignition Coils—Ignition or Sparking Cams—Ignition Plugs — 
Incandescent Tubes for Ignition of Charge—Burners for Incandescent Tubes— 
Electric Ignition and Incandescent Tube Ignition Compared—Ignition of Charge 
bv Thermo-cauteries—Catalytic and Electro-catalvtic Igniters—Ignition by Com¬ 
pression-Cylinders of Petrol Motors—Cooling “of Cylinders—Evils Resulting 
from Hot Cylinders—Water-cooling of Cylinders—Radiators for Cooling Water 
Flanges on Tubes and Radiators—Water Pumps—Air-cooling of Cylinders — 

1 langes on Air-cooled Motors—Various Methods of Cooling Cylinders—Pistons of 
Petrol Motors—Connecting Rods—Starting Petrol Motors—Noise and Odour of 
Petrol Motors—Silencers—Consumption of Petrol Motors . . . . .113 

CHAPTER VII. 

Typical Petrol Motors Described. 

Pour-stroke Cycle Motors for Cars—Four-stroke Cycle Motors for Motor-cycles and 
\ oiturettes—Two-stroke Cycle Motors—Six-stroke Cycle Motor—Tank “Motor- 
Diesel Motor—Rotary Petrol Motors—Unsatisfactory Working of Petrol Motors 
Non-elasticity of Petrol Motors—Vibration—Further Progress .... 140 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Accumulators and Electric Motors for Automobiles. 

Applicability of Accumulators to the Automobile—Employment of Overhead and 
Lnderground Conductors Impracticable for Automobiles—Primary Batteries too 
Expensive—Need of Great Specific Power—Lead-and-lead Traction Accumulators 
—Accumulator Plates—Accumulator Receptacles—Types of Accumulators 
Described—Specific Constants of Accumulators—Advantages of Electric Motor 
for Traction—Controller—Excitation of Motor, Series and Shunt—Qualities 

Required from Electric Motors for Traction—Construction of Electric Motors_ 

Four-pole Motors—Varying Speed—Modifying Field Excitation—Running Motor 
as Dynamo—Motor Acting as Brake—Construction of Controller oi^ Speed 
Regulator—Charging Accumulators ........ ->09 

CHAPTER IX. 

Steam, Petrol, and Electric Motors Compared. 

Advantages and Disadvantages of Steam Motor—Advantages and Disadvantages of 
Petrol Motor—Advantages and Disadvantages of Electric Motor—Part assigned 
to each. s 0 OA 


CHAPTER X. 

Determining Motor Power Required by an Automobile. 

Resistance due to Rolling of Car on Level Road—Resistance due to Friction of 
Journals in Axle Boxes—Co-efficient of Traction—Conditions of Roads—Width of 
Tyres—Effect of Spring Suspension—Resistance due to Gradients—Resistance 
due to Road Curves—Resistance due to Air—Increased Resistance when Starting 
Car—Formulae for Resistance to Car—Calculating Maximum Useful Power of 
Motor—Adherence between Tyres and Ground—Power Losses during Trans¬ 
mission—Elasticity of Horse and Non-elasticity of Mechanical Motor—Calculating 
Power of Automobile Motor—Ascertaining Motor Power by Brake Tests— Prony 
Brake—Cord Brake—Ascertaining Motor Power by Electric Test—Power Avail¬ 
able at Wheel Tyres ....... 



CONTENTS. 


xi 


CHAPTER XI. 

Transmission of Motor Power to Driving Wheels. page 

Tiansmission in the Cugnot Trolley—Necessity for Transmission Gear—Backward 
Running Ability to Disengage Motor Necessary—Independence of Driving 
Wheels—Transmission Gears of Petrol Cars—Clutch Gears—Crab Clutches— 
Fiiction Clutches with Straight Cones—Friction Clutches with Inverted Cones 
Bind Clutches Friction-plate Clutch—Belts and Pulleys—Speed-changin°- 
Mechanisms—Toothed Gear—Differential Gear—Pawl and Ratchet Gear- 
Chains, Block and Roller—Breakage of Chains—Advantage of Chain Driving— 
Hinged Axles Transmission Gears of Steam Cars—Speed-changing Devices for 
Steam Cars —Block Transmission Gear—Fore-carriage Transmission Gear—Belt 
. Systems of Transmission—Transmission by both Toothed Gear and Belts— 
Friction-plate Transmission Systems—Question of Dispensing with Differential- 
Transmission Gear of Electric Cars . . . . . < # 259 

CHAPTER XII. 

Axles and Steering Gear of Automobiles. 

Driving Axles and Steering Axles—Tripping and its' Causes—Strength of Axles — 
Types of Axles—Axle Journals—“ Set ” of Axles—Axle Boxes—Oil Axle Boxes 
—Ball Bearings—Roller Boxes and Lubricating Boxes Compared—Steering Gear 
—Various Methods of Steering—Two-pivot Fore-carriage—Joining together 
Steering Wheels—Simple Quadrilateral Wheel Couplings—Double Quadrilateral 
Wheel Couplings—Concave Pentagon Wheel Couplings—Slide Mechanism Con¬ 
nection between Steering Wheels—Chain and Toothed Gear Connections—Bell 
Steering Gear—Absolute Non-reversibility of Steering Necessary—Epicycloidal 
Gear—Various forms of Two-pivot Steering Axles—Pin or Pivot Fore-carriage . 309 

CHAPTER XIII. 

Wheels and Tyres of Automobiles. 

Solidity of Wheels—Diameter of Wheels—Advantages and Disadvantages of Big- 
Wheels—Wheel Resistance—Width of Tyres—Necessity of Good Roads—Wheels 
with Wooden Spokes—Tyres of Wooden Wheels—Dished Wheels—Wheels with 
Metal Spokes—Double-dished Wheels—Solid Metal Wheels—Metal Tyres—Solid 
Indiarubber Tyres—Cementing on Solid Tyres—Compound Tyres—Hollow India- 
rubber Tyres—Pneumatic Tyres—Plating of Pneumatic Tyres—Defects of 
Pneumatic Tyres—Protected Tyres—Elastic Wheels—Pneumatic Wheel . . 328 

CHAPTER XIV. 

Springs, Underframes, and Bodies of Automobiles. 

Conditions to be Fulfilled by Springs—Material for Springs—Chief Types of Springs 
—Straight Springs—Nipper Springs—Half-nipper Springs—Cee Springs—Spiral 
Springs—Suspension—Transmission Affected by Suspension, and vice versa — 
Simple Suspensions—Double Suspensions—Underframes—Material for Under¬ 
frames—Motor-cycle and Voiturette Underframes—Car Underframes—Bodies of 
Automobiles—Bodies, the combined work of Engineer and Carriage Builder— 
Shape of Body—Material for Bodies—Partinium, an Aluminium Alloy—Avoidance 
of Large Transversal Surfaces—Bevelled Glasses in Front of Cars—General 
Appearance of Bodies and Cars ..343 

CHAPTER XV. 

Brakes for Automobiles. 

Necessity for Brakes—Regulations in France—Braking Effect of Steam, Electric, 
and Petrol Motors—Action of Independent Brakes—Shoe Brakes Acting on 
Tyres—Advantages and Disadvantages of Shoe Brakes—Brakes Acting on 
Pulleys—Plate Brakes—Rope or Coiled Brakes—Advantages and Disadvantages 
of Rope Brakes—Double-acting Coiled Brakes—Band Brakes—Pawl and Devil- 
drag 354 



Xll 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER XVI. 

Lubrication of Automobiles. page 

I aits Requiring Lubrication—Lubricants and their Necessary Qualities—Applying 
Lubricants Continuous Automatic Lubricators—Physical Lubricators—Oleopoly- 
meter Mechanical Lubricators, Automatic and Non-automatic—Oleopump— 
Multiple Lubricators . . . . . , _ # # _ .362 


CHAPTER XVII. 

Steam Automobile Carriages. 

General Arrangement of Steam Car—Steam Omnibuses Described—Steam Tractors 
1 escribed—Steam Hauling Cars and Lurries Described—Light Steam Cars De¬ 
scribed Steam A oiturettes Described—Steam Landaus and Victorias Described 
—Steam Fore-carriages Described . . . . , . > _ .371 


CHAPTER XVIII. 

Petrol Automobile Vehicles. 

General Arrangement of Petrol Car—Motor Bicycles Described—Motor Tricycles 
Motor Quadricycles Described—Petrol Three-wheel Voiturettes De¬ 
scribed-Petrol Four-wheel Voiturettes Described—Demultiplicators - Petrol Cars 
Described Petrol Delivery Cars Described—Petrol Drays and Tractors Described 
letiol Fore-carriages Described—Petrol-electric Fore-carriages Described . 425 

CHAPTER XIX. 

Electric Automobiles. 

General Arrangement of Electric Car—Early Electric Vehicles—Electric Cabs 
Described Electric Car with Steering Motor Fore-carriage—Electric Coupes 
Described—Electric Pleasure Cars Described-Electric Voiturettes Described- 
Electric Omnibuses Described . . . . _ _ - 0{) 

CHAPTER XX. 

Petrol-electric Automobiles. 

Advantages and Disadvantages of Petrol Motors Balance those of Electric Motors— 
Gas-electric Tramcars—Petrol-electric Cars Described—Advantages of Petrol- 
electric Car—Petrol-electric Goods Wagon .... 

CHAPTER XXL 

Tabulated Results of Automobile Trials, Efficiency Tests, and 

Races. 

Pans-Rouen Race, July, 1864—Paris-Bordeaux Race, June, 1895—Paris-Marseilles 
Race, September, 1896—Chicago Trials, 1895—Poides Lourds (Heavy Vehicle 
Trials) Versailles, 1897 and 1898-Paris-Dieppe Race, July, 1897-Paris-Amster- 
dam Ra°G July, 1898—Hackney Vehicle Trials, Paris, 1898 and 1899—Heavy 
\ehicle Trials, Liverpool, 1898—Nice-Castellane Race, March 1899- Paris 
Bordeaux Race May, 1899-Tour-de-France, July, 1899-Accumulator^ Tr a? by 
Automobile Club of France, 1899-Heavy Wagon Trial, Richmond, June, 1899- 
Paris-Bordeaux Race May, 1901-Richmond Trials, June, 1899- Automobile 
Chib Trials, April and May, 1900-Paris-Roubaix Alcohol Trials, April, 1901- 
aris-Berlin Race, June, 1901 Heavy Vehicle Trials, Liverpool, 1899-1901 557 

CHAPTER XXII. 

Applications, Efficiency, and Further Progress of the Automobile. 

Applications of Strain Cars—Applications of Petrol Cars—Applications of Electric Cars— 
Increased Efficiency—Thermal Efficiency of Boiler—Thermal Efficiency of Motor 

r ? rS Ffn C - EffiCie J 1 T?i of . M o tor -Tifficiency of Steam Car—Efficiency of Petrol 
Car-Efficiency of Electric Car-Deplorable Efficiencies and their Improvement - 
Desired Improvements—Automobiles are Practicable Road Vehicles . . 573 

Index .... 

..585 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 


FIG. PAGE 

1. Cugnot’s Steam Trolley - • 2 

2 . David Gordon’s Steam Carriage - 7 

3. Gurney’s Steam Coach 9 

4. Hancock’s Steam Omnibus - - 10 

5. Hancock’s Boiler - - 11 

6 . Plate of Hancock’s Boiler - - 11 

7. Coulthard Boiler - - - - 37 

8 . Bollee Boiler - - - 39 

9. Scotte Improved Field Boiler - 39 

10 . De Dion-Bouton Boiler - - 41 

11—14. Weidknecht Boiler - - 43 

15. Negre Boiler - - - 45 

16. Thornycroft Boiler 45 

17 , 18 . Lifu Burner, Horizontal Section 48 

19. Gillett Boiler - 49 

20 , 21 . Serpollet Boiler - 50 

22 . Pumps of Serpollet Boiler - - 51 

23—25. Serpollet Boiler - - - 53 

26. Longuemare Burner for Boilers - 55 

27. Clarkson and Capel Burner - - 56 

28—30. Simpson and Bodman Boiler- 57 

31. Blaxton Boiler - - - - 59 

32. Negre Boiler for Light Vehicles - 60 

33—38. Serpollet Two-cylinder Super¬ 
heated Steam Motor - - 67 

39, 40. Ivecheur Steam Motor - - 68 

41, 42. Simpson and Bodman Steam 

Motor - - - - 70, 71 

43—45. Negre Steam Motor - 72, 73 

46. Lifu Compound Steam Motor - 76 

47. Thornycroft Horizontal Com¬ 

pound Steam Motor - - 77 

48. 49. Coulthard Steam Motor - 78 

50—53. Gerard Rotary Steam Motor 79—81 

54. Arbel-Tihon Rotary Steam Motor 82 

55. Lufhery Carburetter 88 

56. Petreano Carburetter - - 89 

57. Daimler-Phoenix Carburetter - 91 

58—60. De Dion-Bouton Carburetter 92 

61. Longuemare Carburetter - - 93 

62. Rochet Carburetter - - - 93 

63. Chaveau Carburetter - - - 95 

64. Gautier-Wehrle Carburetter - 95 

65. Mors Carburetter - - - 96 

66 . De Dietrich Carburetter - - 96 

67. G. Richard Carburetter - - 97 

68 . Peugeot Cai'buretter: Old Type - 97 

69. Peugeot Carburetter : New Type- 98 

70. Abeille Carburetter 99 

71. Lepape Carburetter : Old Type - 100 


72. Lepape Carburetter: New Type - 100 

73. Loyal Carburetter - - - 100 


PAGE 

74. Bouvier-Dreux or Dorey Carbu¬ 


retter - - . - - 102 

75, 76. Sales and Braby Carburetter - 103 

77. Huzelstein Carburetter - - 105 

78, 79. Gautier Carburetter - - 105 

80. Gibbon Carburetter - - - 107 

81. Faure Carburetter - - - 107 

82. Dawson Carburetter - - - 107 

83. Dawson Carburetter : Another 

Type.109 

84. Moorwood-Bennet Petroleum Car¬ 

buretter - - - -110 

85. Bassee-Miehel Ignition Plug - 123 

86 . Helical Ignition Plug - - - 123 

87. Steatite Ignition Plug - - 123 

88 . 89. G. Richard Ignition Plug - 125 

90. Peugeot Ignition Plug - - 125 

91. Longuemare Burner for Ignition 

Tubes - - - - - 126 

92. Bollee Burner - - - 127 

93. Wydt’s Electro-catalytic Igniter - 131 

94. Plug of Wydt’s Igniter - - 131 

95. Lanchester System of Cooling 

Cylinder - - - - 137 

96. 97. Daimler Petrol Motor - - 141 

98. Daimler New Ignition Apparatus 143 


99— 101 . Phoenix Daimler Motor 144, 145 
102 . English Phoenix-Daimler Motor 147 
103—106. Section of Simms Petrol 

Motor- - - - 148, 149 

107—109. Peugeot Petrol Motor - 150 

110 . Peugeot Distributing Cam - 150 

111 , 112 . Peugeot Admission Valve - 151 

113, 114. Benz Admission Valve - 151 

115, 116. De Dion-Bouton Car Motor 152 

117. De Dion-Bouton Igniter - - 153 

118. De Dion-Bouton Motor System- 153 

119. Delahaye Petrol Motor - - 154 

120 . Delahaye Ignition System - - 154 

121. Cambier Petrol Motor - - 155 

122. 123. Mors Four-cylinder Petrol 

Motor - - - - - 156 

124, 125. Mors Two-cylinder Petrol 

Motor.157 

126, 127. Mors Distributing Mech¬ 
anism - - - - - 158 

128. Landry-Beyroux Petrol Motor - 159 

129. Gautier-Wehrle Petrol Motor - 159 

130. Lepape Three-cylinder Petrol 

Motor - - - - -161 

131. Lepape One-cylinder Petrol 

Motor.161 




XIV 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PIG. 

132. 


PAGE 


133- 

136. 

137. 

138. 

139. 

140. 
142, 

144- 

.147, 

149. 

150, 
152, 

154, 

156. 

157. 

158. 
160, 
162- 
165- 


168, 

170, 

172, 

174. 

175. 

176. 

177. 


Lepape Two-cylinder Petrol 
Motor ■ 

-135. Gautier Petrol Motor 
Henroid Petrol Motor 
Turgan and Foy Petrol Motor - 
Mees Petrol Motor - 
Ravel Petrol Motor - 
141. Gobron and Brillie Motor - 
143. Hautier orEsperance Petrol 
Motor - 

— 146. Petreano Petrol Motor 
148 Societe d’Automobilisme 
Petrol Motor 

Canello-Durkopp Petrol Motor - 
l^L Koch Petroleum Motor 
153. Kane-Pennington Petroleum 
Motor ..... 

155. Faure Petroleum Motor 
Dawson Petroleum Motor - 
Dawson Burner.... 

159. Dawson Magneto Machine - 
161. Roser-Mazurier Motor 
"164. L. Bollee Petrol Motor 
-16/. De Dion-Bouton Tricycle 
Petrol Motor and Carburet- 
ter - - - 184, 185 


162 

163 

165 

166 
167 
167 
169 

171 

173 

174 

175 

177 

178 

179 

180 
180 
181 
182 
183 


178, 

180. 

181, 

183, 

185, 

187— 

190, 

192- 

198. 

199— 

202 , 

204, 
206, 
208, 
210 - 
214, 
216. 
217- 
221 - 
224, 
226- 
229. 


169. Gaillardet Petrol Motor 
171. Aster Petrol Motors - 
K 3 . Cyclone Petrol Motor 
Krebs Petrol Motor - 
Riancey Petrol Motor 
Lo} T al Petrol Motor - 
Gobron Two-stroke Cycle Petrol 
Motor - 

179. Goret Six-stroke Cycle Petrol 
Motor ..... 
Diesel Compound Motor - 
182. Diesel Two-stroke Cvcle 
Petrol Motor 

184. Beetz Rotary Petrol Motor - 
186. Dodement Rotary Petrol 
Motor - 

-189. Yernet Rotary Petrol Motor 
19E Gardner-Sanderson Motor - 
-197. Chaudun Rotary Petrol 

Motor - . - 204, 205 

-Lamina Accumulator- - _ 212 

- 201 . Fulmen Accumulator Plate 213 
203 Faure - Sellon - Volckmar 
Plates- - . . 216 217 

*"05. Patin Electric Motor - - ’ 225 

207. Krieger Electric Motor - 226 
209. Still Electric Motor - 
-213. Joel Electric Motor - 
215. Controller - 
Prony Brake - 
- 220 . Rope Brake 
-223. Bonnafous Clutch 
225. Gautier-Wehrle Clutch 
-228. Julien Clutch - 
Julien Two-speed Gear 


186 

187 

189 

190 

190 

191 

193 

194 
196 

199 

200 

201 

202 

203 


- 227 

- 228 
230, 231 

- 255 
256, 257 
262, 263 

- 264 
265, 266 

- 266 


FIG. 

230. 

231, 

233. 

234, 

236. 

237. 


PAGE 

Julien Three-speed Gear - - 267 

232. Piat Friction Clutch - 268, 269 

Rossel Transmission Gear - - 271 

235. Humpage Epicycloidal Gear 

272, 273 

Lang Transmission Gear - - 274 

Differential Gear with Conical 


Pinions 


Gear with Flat 


239. 

240. 

241. 

242. 

243. 

244. 

245. 

246. 

247. 

248. 

249- 

252. 

253- 


256- 

259. 

260, 
262. 


263. 

264, 
266- 

269. 

270. 

271. 

272. 
274. 
275— 

279. 

280, 

282. 

283, 

285. 

286. 

287. 

288, 


290, 

292. 

293. 

294. 

295. 

296. 

297. 

298. 


238. Differential 

Pinions - - 
Benoit Block Chain - 
Benoit Roller Chain - 
Brampton Block Chain 
Brampton Roller Chain - 
Brampton Duplex Roller Chain 
Renolds Chain, Elevation - 
Renolds Chain, Plan 
De Dion-Bouton Hinged Axle - 
Gautier-Wehrle Hinged Axle 
Coulthard Compensating Gear 
Shaft - ... 

-251. De Dion-Bouton S] 3 eed- 
ehanging Gear - - 282- 

De Dion-Bouton Differential Gear 
-2o5. I)e Dion-Bouton Reversing 
Gear - 

-258. Metz Speed-changing Gear 
Gaillardet Speed-changing Gear 
261. Gaitb.rdet Transmission Gear 
Montauban-Marchandier Three- 
speed Block-transmission 
Montauban - Mar chan dier Four- 
speed Block-transmission 
265. Pretot Transmission Gear - 
-268. Ariel Two-speed Gear 29], 
Darracq Transmission Gear 
Buchet Transmission Gear 
De Dietrich Transmission Gear 
2 /3. Leo Transmission Gear 
Webb Transmission Gear - 
~rv ^epape Transmission Gear 
Ringelmanu Transmission Gear - 
281. Ellis and Steward Trans¬ 
mission Gear - 
Lufbery Tiansmission Gear 
284. Jeantaud Motor Fore¬ 
carriage - 

Doie Motor Foie-oarria^e - 
Patin Transmission Ge'ar - 
Patin Clutch - 

289 \ Milde-Montos Transmis 
sion Gear 


274 

- 275 

- 276 

276 
276 

277 

277 

278 

278 

279 

280 

281 

-284 

284 

284 

285 

286 

287 

288 

289 

290 
293 
293 

295 

296 

297 

298 

299 

300 


301 

303 

304 

305 

306 

307 


—-- - _ _ - 307 

291. Lemoine Patent Oil Axle 312, 313 

orronn T d ...7 „ „ 4 i 


Danacq Driving Axle 
De Dion-Bouton Driving Axle - 
Ackermann - Jeantaud Pivoted 
Fore-carriage - 
Jenatzy Steering Gear - " 

Bollee Steering Gear 
Lavenir Steering Gea: 


299 


314 

315 

317 

318 
318 
318 


'—'■ Y_, Ct M. " ^ j ^ ^ 

Bourlet Steering Gear 319, 320 
















LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 


xv 


300. Bollee Chain Steering- Gear - 320 

301. Del ah aye Steering Gear - - 321 

302. Priestman and Wright Steer¬ 

ing Gear - - - - 321 

303—305. Panhard and Levassor 

Steering Gear ... 322 

306. Chain Steering Gear- - - 323 

307, 308. Brillie Epicycloidal Steer¬ 

ing Gear - - - 324,325 

309—311. Lemoine Steering Axle 326, 327 
312, 313. Bronze Nave - 331 

314. Spoke in Bolted Socket - - 332 

315, 316. Lemoine Nave for Metal 

Spokes - 332 

317. Peugeot Nave and Felloe - - 333 

318. Yinet Tyre - - - - 335 

319. Clincher and Hannoyer Pressed 

Rubber Tyre - - - 335 

320. Loubiere Tyre - - - - 335 

321. Torrilhon Tyre- - - - 335 

322. 323. Hannoyer Tyre screwed on 335 

324. Kelly Tyre - ‘ - - - 335 

325. Hannoyer Tyre with Twisted 

Wires .... 335 

326. Ducasble Tyre - 337 

327. Compound Tyre - - - 337 

328. Ducasble Hollow Tyro - - 337 

329. 330. Michelin Pneumatic Tyre - 338 

331. Dunlop Tyre - - - 338 

332. Clipper Tyre - 339 

333. Hall Pneumatic Wheel - - 339 

334. Straight Spring with Rolls - 344 

335. Straight Spring with Eight 

Blades - 344 

336. Cee Spring with Hinge - - 344 

337. Cee Spring without Hinge - 344 

338. Cee Spring with Leather Brace - 345 

339. Combined Cee and Nipper Spring 345 

340. Spiral Spring - - - - 345 

341—343. Jeantaud Suspension - 348 

344, 345. Lanty, Hommen and Dumas 

Double Suspension - - 349 

346. Underframe of Bollee Voiturette 351 

347. Darracq Brake - - - 357 

348—350. Jeantaud Brake - - 358 

351. Hautier Brake - ... 359 

352—354. Renault Brake - - - 360 

355. Krebs Double-acting Brake - 361 

356, 357. Hochgesand Oleopolymeter 364 

358. Holt Lubricator ... 365 

359. Brunler Lubricator - - - 366 

360. Drevdal Terminus Lubricator - 367 

361. Drevdal Oleopump - - - 368 

362. Bourdon Multiple Lubricator - 369 

363. Hamelle Multiple Lubricator - 369 

364. Do Dion-Bouton Steam Omnibus 372 

365. De Dion-Bouton Steam Tractor - 373 

366—368. Scotte Steam Omnibus - 375 

369, 370. AVeidknecht Steam Omni¬ 
bus .377 


371, 372. Serpollet Steam Omnibus - 379 


1VJ * PAGE 

373. Le Blant Steam Tractor - - 3 sl 

374. Diagram of Musker Lurry- - 383 

375. Diagram of Thorny croft Lurry 

and Lifu Lurry - - . 333 

376. Diagram of Coulthard Lurry and 

Leyland Lurry - . . 333 

377. Diagram of Clarkson and Capel 

Lurry - - . - ‘ - 383 

378. Diagram of Bayley Lurry - - 383 

379. Diagram of Simpson and Bod- 

man Lurry .... 333 

380. 381. Elevation and Plan of 

Musker Steam Lurry - - 385 

382, 383. Attachment of Platform to 

Musker Rear Axle - - 386 

384, 385. Elevation and Plan of 

Thornycroft Steam Lurry - 389 

386—388. Elevations and Plans of 

Coulthard Steam Lurry - 392 

389, 390. Side and Front Elevations 

of Leyland Lurry - - 394 , 395 

391, 392. Elevation and Plan of Clark¬ 
son and Capel Steam Lurry - 398 

393, 394. Elevation and Plan of 

Bayley Steam Lurry - - 399 

395, 396. Front and Back Elevations 

of Bayley Steam Lurry - 400 

397—399. Elevations and Plan of 

Simpson and Bodman Lurry 

402, 403 


400, 401. Elevation and Plan of Foden 

Steam Lurry - - .404 

402, 403. Elevation and Plan of 

Negre Steam Lurry - 406, 407 

404. Piat Steam Lurry - - - 408 

405, 406. Mann Steam Tipping Cart - 409 

407. Mann Steam Lurry - 410 

408. Serpollet Steam Car - - - 411 

409. Gardner-Serpollet Steam Car - 413 

410. Gardner-Serpollet Feed Pumps - 414 

411. Gardner-Serpollet Steam Car 

Connections- - - - 415 

412—414. Elevations of Automobile 
Manufacturing Company’s 
Steam Car - - - 416, 417 

415. Connections on Automobile 

Manufacturing Company’s 
Steam Car - - - - 419 

416. Locomobile Two-seat Steam Car 421 

417. Locomobile Four-seat Steam Car 423 

418. Wolfmuller Motor Bicycle - 427 

419. Werner Motor Bicycle - - 427 

420. Centaure Motor Bicycle - - 427 

421. Orient Motor Bicycle - - 427 

422. Republic Motor Bicycle - - 429 

423. Motor Traction Co.’s Motor 

Bicycle .... 429 

424. Shaw Motor Bicycle - - - -4 29 

425. Singer Motor Bicycle - - 429 

426. Singer Motor Wheel - - 431 

427. Holden Motor Bicycle - - 433 







XVI 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS . 


FIG. PAGE 

428, 429. Change - speed Gear of 

Peugeot Tricycle - - - 435 

430. Singer Petrol Motor Tricycle - 436 

431. Ariel Petrol Motor Tricycle - 437 

432. Section of Ariel Petrol Motor - 438 

433. L. Bollee Petrol Voiturette - 439 

434. Cyrano Petrol Voiturette - - 443 


435. Panhard and Levassor Voiturette 

Underframe and Mechanism 444 

436. De Dion-Bouton Petrol Voiturette 445 

437. Scheme of de Dion - Bouton 


Petrol Voiturette - - - 446 

438. De Dion-Bouton 8 h.p. Light Car 447 

439. Turgan and Foy Belt-driven 

Petrol Car - - - - 449 

440. Turgan and Foy Chain-driven 

Petrol Car - - - 449 

441. Mechanism of Panhard and 

Levassor Petrol Car - - 450 

442. Panhard and Levassor Petrol 

Car - - - - - 451 

443. Panhard and Levassor New 

Petrol Car - - - - 453 

444. Peugeot Petrol Car Transmis¬ 

sion Gear - 454 

445. Peugeot Electric Ignition - - 455 

446. Mechanism of Delahaye Petrol 

Car.457 

447. Richard Petrol Car - 459 

448. 449. De Dietrich (A. Bollee 

System) Petrol Car - 460, 461 

450. Mors Reverse Motion Gear - 463 

451. Mors Electric Ignition - - 465 

452. Mors 10 h.p. Petrol Car - - 465 

453. 454. Elevation and Plan of Mors 

10 h.p. Petrol Car - - 467 

455, 456. Mechanism of Landry- 

Beyroux Petrol Car - - 468 

457. Landry-Beyroux Clutch - - 468 

458. Landry-Beyroux Clutch and 

Brake.468 

459. Gautier-Wehrle Petrol Car - 469 

460. Lepape Petrol Car - - -471 

461. 462. Gaillardet Petrol Car - 474, 475 

463. Henroid Petrol Car - - - 476 

464, 465. Brouhot Petrol Car - - 477 

466—468. Brouhot Pawl Device - 478 

470,471. Gohron and Brillie Petrol Car 479 

472. Bolide Petrol Car (Lefebvre 

System) - - - - 481 

473, 474. Raouval Petrol Car - 482, 483 

475. Raouval Gear Case - - - 485 

476, 477. Raouval Steering Gear - 485 

478, 479. Ducroiset Speed-changing - 

Gear ----- 487 

480. Darracq Petrol Car - 489 

481. English Daimler Petrol Car - 491 

482. Humber Petrol Car - - - 492 


x x vj • 

483, 484. Elevation and Plan of 

Stirling Petrel Car - - 493 

485, 486. Elevation and Plan of 

Wolseley Petrol Car - - 495 

487. Napier Petrol Car - - - 497 

488—490. Elevations and Plan of 

Mees’ Petrol Car - - 498, 499 

491. Mees Change-speed Gear - - 499 

492. Roots and Venables’ Petrol Car - 500 

493. Motor Manufacturing Co.’s 

Petrol Light Car - - - 501 

494. 495. Elevation and Plan of 

Motor Manufacturing Co.’s 
Miniature Panhard Car 502, 503 

496. Duryea Transmission Gear- - 505 

497. Columbia Petrol Car - - - 506 

498—500. De Dietrich Petrol Lurry 508,509 
501, 502. Elevation and Plan of 

Milnes Petroleum Lurry - 510 

503. Milnes Change-speed Gear- - 511 

504. Milnes Transmission Gear - - oil 

505. Milnes Countershaft Brake - 512 

506. 507. Nanceene Alcohol Lurry 512, 513 

508. Elevation of Amiot Peneau 

Motor Fore-carriage - - 513 

509. Plan of Amiot Peneau Motor 

Fore-carriage - - - 514 

510. Ponsard-Ansolini Motor Fore¬ 

carriage Transmission Gear - 515 

511. Ponsard-Ansolini Motor Fore¬ 

carriage Steering Gear - 515 

512. Ponsard-Ansolini Motor Fore¬ 

carriage, End View - - 516 

513. Ponsard-Ansolini Fore-carriage 

on Coupe - - - - 517 

514. Riancey Motor Fore-carriage - 519 

515. Jenatzy Electric Coupe - - 524 

516. Compagnie Franchise des Voi- 

tures Electromobiles Electric 
Car.525 

517. Milde-Greffe Electric Voiturette 532 

518. Bouquet, Garcin and Schivre 

Electric Car - - - 533 

519. Patin Electric Phaeton - - 535 

520. Monnard Electric Motor mounted 

on Axle - - - - 537 

521. 522. Monnard Electric Motor - 537 

523, 524. Vedovelli-Priestley Electric 

Cab - - -‘ - - 539 

525—527. Vedovelli-Priestley Coupler 541 

528. Vedovelli-Priestley Differential 

Steering Gear - - - 543 

529. Riker Electric Car Underframe - 545 

530. Riker Wheel Nave - - - 545 

531. 532. Columbia Electric Car 546, 547 

533. Columbia Crown Brake - ' - 549 

534—536. Pieper Petrol - electric 

Car - - - 552, 553, 555 






THE AUTOMOBILE. 


CHAPTER I. 


EVOLUTION OF THE AUTOMOBILE. 



HE automobile, which now is developing with such rapidity, is 


J- not, at least as far as the employment of the steam engine is 
concerned, so novel a vehicle as many people believe. It already 
has a long history, which deserves to be epitomised,- because in it 
are seen successively revealed most of the parts, the combination of 
which constitutes the modern steam carriage. 

Speculations upon the possible use of fire- and steam-engines 
were made in England by Roger Bacon (1214-1294), and in the 
year 1619 a patent granted to Ramsay and Wildgoose had as part 
of its subject, “ drawing-carts without horses.” Already spring 
power had been tried in Germany, and wind-driven vehicles in 
the Netherlands. 

By letters patent, dated October 10th, 1644, Louis XIV. granted 
to “ Jean Tlieson the privilege of employing a little four-wheel 
carriage set in motion without any horses, but merely by two men 
seated ”; and the Royal almanack of the period states that in 
the year 1748 Vaucanson, in the presence of Louis XV., drove “ a 
carriage with clockwork springs,” respecting which, however, no 
details are given. It is, however, another Frenchman, Nicholas 
Joseph Cugnot, who should be regarded as the inventor of auto¬ 
mobile locomotion. In 1769 he constructed, with State funds 
placed at his disposition by the Due de Choiseul, the first steam 
trolley, which the next year was followed by another somewhat 
further developed. This second trolley, a model of which, belonging 
to the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, was exhibited at the 



• ) 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


Tuileries in June. 1889, is represented by Fig. 1. A kind of boiler 
A, 127 m. (4 It. 2 in.) in diameter, heated by a lire below, supplied 
steam to a four-way cock B, which brought the two cylinders C, 
83 cm. (13 in.) in diameter, into communication alternately with the 
boiler and with the exhaust. The movements of this cylindrical 
slide valve were caused by a somewhat complicated combination of 
connecting rods and catches. The possibility of changing the 
position of the latter might strictly have been utilised to vary the 
expansion of steam, though it is not thought that Cugnot ever had 
such an idea. The movement of the pistons was transmitted to 
the driving axle by means of two ratchet wheels D, set in motion 
bv rods corresponding to the two pistons, by aid of the arms E, 
furnished with pawls. This device could easily be employed to 



drive the wheel backwards simply by changing the pawl to the 
opposite side of the notch; in tact, the ratchet wheels turned in 
either direction according as the pawls acted upwards or down- 
waids. This system is found employed in a more or less simplified 
form by certain constructors, particularly by Brouliot, of Vierzon, 
A\ho found in it the advantage of not requiring differential gear, 
as that part is named which makes the driving wheels indepen¬ 
dent in turning. Cugnot did not require independent wheels 
because on his driving axle there was only one wheel; this was 
also used for steering, and at the same time he avoided the 
difficulty that had been a stumbling-block to inventors before 
Akermann overcame the difficulty by making a double-pivoted axle 
which enabled the steering wheels to be worked without deforming 
the frame of the carriage. It is needless to remark that with a 
single wheel for driving and steering the trolley was deficient in 
two valuable points, namely, power and stability. The frame designed 





































































EVOLUTION OF THE AUTOMOBILE. 


to carry a cannon or any other similar weight was formed by two 
strong wooden side beams with tie bars. At the back it rested 
on a carrying axle, and in front was joined to a wrought iron frame 
supporting the engine and boiler, the latter projecting over the front. 
The frame rested on the driving axle through the intermediary of 
bronze bearings. The whole could turn around a vertical pivot 
under the action of gearing worked by a handle in front of the 
driver’s seat. In the few trials to which it was subjected the trolley 
carried a load of 2,500 kg. (2b tons) at a speed of 5 km. (3 miles) 
per hour; but it had to stop every quarter of an hour for the boiler 
to be refilled with water and to get up sufficient steam pressure. 
Though the experiments were brought to an end by a false move, 
which caused the trolley to run into and knock down a wall, thus 
giving an unfortunate but evident proof of its power, the chief defect 
of the Cugnot vehicle was its boiler. None the less it marked 
an interesting step in quite a new direction, which did not pass 
unnoticed by General Bonaparte on his return from Italy. At his 
initiative a Commission of the Institute was appointed to investigate 
the invention, but his departure for Egypt delayed and finally 
prevented realisation of this plan. These efforts awakened no re¬ 
sponse in France, and it is in England that the growth of the 
automobile must be followed; but, first, remarks will have to be of 
a retrospective character. 

Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) is reported to have invented 
a steam-carriage, the motor in which was a kettle with its spout 
turned to the rear, and this, being provided with a horizontal jet- 
piece, formed a single-jet reaction apparatus, similar to the present- 
day steam toys. Newton’s motor was a Hero’s steam-engine (invented 
in the 2nd century b.c.), according to Beaumont’s Cantor Lectures 
(1895), and was inferior to Giovanni Banca’s steam-turbine, made 
in the year 1629. Newton seems to have been forestalled by Father 
Verbiest, a missionary at Pekin, China, who placed an seolipile 
with jets playing on a revolving winged wheel geared to the wheels 
of a car. About the end of the 17th century and the beginning of 
the next, Papin, Savery, and others made suggestions, which, how¬ 
ever, do not appear to have been of much value. Dr. John Robison 
(1739-1805) suggested to James Watt, in 1759, it is said, the 
possibility of applying steam to carriage propulsion; but Watt did 
not encourage the scheme, either to Robison, or, in later years, 

B 2 


4 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


to Dr. Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802), Matthew Boulton (1728- 
1809), Small, Moore, and William Murdock (1754-1839;, the last- 
named of whom had made a really successful locomotive. James 
Watt himself, in 1784, patented an invention for propelling vehicles 
by steam—an invention never brought to fulfilment. William 
Murdock, Watt’s pupil, made, in 1785, a miniature tricycle having 
a steam cylinder less than 20 mm. ('787 in.) in diameter, and a piston 
stroke of little more than 50 mm. (1*97 in.). In 1790 Nathaniel 
Read, of Massachusetts, patented a steam carriage with two cylinders, 
whose pistons were connected to racks which moved pinions on 
the driving axles, ratchets preventing motion in any but one way; 
this system of rack and ratchet has been revived several times. 
In Reads carriage the exhaust jets were turned rearwards, thus 
acting as additional propellers; and as the exhaust pressure probably 
was nearly boiler pressure at the moment of release, each jet 
would have been as good as Newton’s jet, which it resembled in 
principle. Beaumont remarks that Read’s boiler, like those of 
many who followed him, bore no relation to the capacity of the 
cylinders, except that of equality in steam space dimensions. 

William Symington (1764-1831) patented a steam road carriage 
in 1786, and a model of the carriage made by him had a cylindrical 
boiler, with a lever safety-valve, supplying steam to the cylinder 
of an atmospheric condensing engine whose piston-rod commu¬ 
nicated motion by means of a rack and ratchet-wheel. This did 
not accomplish anything, other than what the rack and ratchet 
system could have done, but Symington’s invention certainly Avas 
better than some contrivances which followed it. 

The American inventor, Read, has already been mentioned 
and another is Oliver Evans, Avho, in 1787, Avas the first to obtain 
the right in Pennsylvania and Maryland to operate steam road 
Avagons, and Avho, in 1805, built a combined boat and road wagon 
In France a vehicle of the same kind—a small steamboat on Avheels 
—Avas built by Charles Dallery. 

An advance on any of the foregoing Avas made by Richard 
Trevithick (1771-1833), who, with his friend Vivian, patented a 
steam carriage in 1802; gearing connected the crankshaft Avith 
the driving Avheels, and a fiyAvheel Avas placed on the former. 
The carriage ran several journeys, the speed being as great as 
ten miles an hour; but at the end of three years the partners 




EVOLUTION OF THE AUTOMOBILE. 


5 


had spent all their money on it, and it was sold for driving a 
hoop-rolling mill—work which it did satisfactorily for many years, 
Ihe Trevithick vehicle was the first example, as far as automobiles 
are concerned, of transmitting power by gearing. 

dhe first steam carriage having comfortable accommodation 
for passengers was designed by Julius Griffiths, and in 1821 built 
in the works founded by Joseph Bramah (1748-1814). The 
boiler had superposed rows of horizontal tubes, in which the 
water was vaporised and superheated : it is. the oldest specimen of 
tubular boilers now so widely known. After acting in the two 
vertical cylinder engines which work the driving axle, the steam 
was condensed in a set of thin tubes, became cold in contact 
with the air, and returned to the boiler. Considering the date, 
this arrangement is very remarkable, viewed as a good theoretic 
utilisation of fuel and water, but practically it was defective. The 
water-tubes, in the boiler were 61 cm. (2 ft.) long and 3*8 cm. 
(1J in.) in diameter, and were flanged to flat, vertical water- 
chambers, which were connected across the top by transverse 
and longitudinal tubes forming the steam receivers, and to some 
extent super-heaters. The cross-tubes numbered 114, and their 
heating surface was about 8'26 m. 2 (89 sq. ft.), the total heating 
surface, including that of the water-chambers, being from 102 to 
11 1 m. 2 (110 to 120 sq. ft.). Boiler and motor were placed on 
springs on a rear platform, and the vehicle body, resembling that 
of a stage-coach, rested on springs on two shafts supported by 
the axles. The rear axle carried the driving wheels, to which 
a number of gears, each giving one rate of speed, transmitted 
motion from the two steam pistons. The front axle was for 
steering as an ordinary fore-carriage, and was surmounted by the 
driver’s seat. The failure of the boiler of course involved the failure 
of the whole vehicle, which did not have a practical road trial. 

During the first quarter of the 19th century the fallacy was 
generally entertained that the adhesion of ordinary wheels was in¬ 
sufficient for traction purposes, and many arrangements were 
suggested for substituting for wheels a system of propulsion 
by mechanical legs and feet in rough imitation of animal 
action. Naturally, these push-foot schemes were found imprac¬ 
ticable, but the carriage on this system patented in 1824 by 
David Gordon received much attention. The Gordon automobile 


6 


THE AUTOMOBILE . 


(Fig. 2) was suggested, evidently, by Brunton’s locomotive, in¬ 
vented some years previously. The motive power was required to 
drive six regular hinged feet, whose purpose was to propel the vehicle 
in the same way as a horse’s feet work, feet being arranged under the 
car in pairs on each side and in the centre. Stephenson had not 
then demonstrated the efficacy of adherence, for otherwise the 
push-foot delusion would not have gained serious consideration. 

A departure from previous methods was made in 1824 by W. H. 
James, who then patented a steam carriage in which the engines 
were not connected to the road wheels. He employed two tubular 
boilers, formed of concentric tubes, whose capacity was better pro¬ 
portioned to the size of the engine than in former attempts made 
by other inventors. The four cylinders were each 8’9 cm. (34 in.) in 
diameter; pistons were in parts coupled to the two parts of a crank 
shaft, upon each of which a back wheel was keyed; thus the two 
wheels were independent of each other. A regulator distributed the 
steam to the two pairs of cylinders according to the work which fell 
to each wheel. 

The boiler in the James vehicle (says Beaumont’s Cantor 
Lectures) consisted of a number of rings of tubes, connected to¬ 
gether and placed one outside the other so as to form a series 
of annular spaces, alternately, of tubes, about three-fourths being 
filled with water and heated gases; the fire was in the central 
ring of tubes, this central ring, being 1 m. 37 cm. (4 ft. 6 in.) long, 
and 5334 cm. (1 ft. 9 in.) in diameter. The water-tubes in the 
boiler were of 254 cm. (1 in.) gas-pipe, and gave much trouble ; 
but in spite of all defects a car built on this system, and weighing 
less than 44 tons, ran from Epping Forest to London with only 
one boiler at work. 

James improved on his car in a traction vehicle, built in 1829, 
which, however, employed the same kind of boiler, which was 
made up of nearly 200 tubular rings and 400 ft. of 1-9 cm. (f in.) 
water-tube enclosed in a space 1 m. 22 cm. by 91 4 cm. by 61 cm 
(4 ft. by 3 ft. by 2 ft.). The exhaust from the engine was so hot that 
it melted the solder of two copper tanks in which the feed-water was 
heated, brazing with hard solder being rendered necessary. 

An automobile, resembling in general appearance a four-horse 
mail-coach, was patented in 1825 by Burstall and Hall, but it 
failed owing to its boiler, which was placed in the rear, and which 


EVOLUTION OF THE AUTOMOBILE. 7 

1 

consisted of a cast-iron fire-box, whose upper surface formed shallow 
trays or dishes immediately over the fire-grate. Water was injected 
into these trays from a feed-water tank, the pressure in which 
was maintained at 42 kg. per cm. 3 (60 lb. per sq. in.) by pumps which 
forced air into the upper part. The boiler resembled the type now 
known as instantaneous generators, the wrought-iron shell surround¬ 
ing the cast-iron fire-box, which had a rather long chimney. The 
boiler fed a grasshopper engine, having two vertical beam cylinders, 
whose beams were directly connected to cranks at right angles, 
the main axle being the crankshaft. The intention was to make 
the front axle a driving axle also by means of the bevel gearing, 



Fig. 2 .—David Gordon’s Steam Carriage. 


there being a universal joint just in front of the water tank to 
permit of the movement of the front wheels for steering. The 
exhaust from the engine was passed into a silencer, and its emission 
therefrom regulated so as to prevent noise. The engines were 
said to be capable of giving 10 horse power, but the reported 
obtainable speed was only from 5‘95 km. to 69 km. (37 to 43 miles) 
per hour, and the whole thing was a failure. 

Following on the James and Burstall patents, several inventions 
appeared in Great Britain and in the United States, there being 
a few road trials in the former. 

Sir Goldsworthy Gurney’s first attempt at automobile con-^ 
struction was a steam carriage impelled by legs moved backwards 
and forwards by steam cylinders, but, abandoning such an imprac¬ 
ticable vehicle, he devoted himself to traction engines, and in 
particular automobiles of an advanced type. In a carriage built 









































































8 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


by Gurney in 1828 the boiler was at the back, as shown in 
Fig. 3, which is reproduced from the Minutes of Proceedings of 
the Institution of Civil Engineers (as is also Fig. 4), and consisted 
of a layer of tubes a, b, slightly inclined to the horizontal, these 
forming the bars of the fire-box, which had a door at the back 
not shown in the figure. These tubes were bent over as shown 
thus being shaped like the letter < on its side, the ends running 
into two large horizontal boilers connected by two vertical tubes. 
From the top boiler the steam goes into a wrought-iron steam-chest, 
which acts as a separator xor the primed water, which returns to the 
lower boiler, and for the steam which passes out near the top through 
the pipe to the front, thus crossing the smoke-box, where it dries ; 
then it passes to a cock which the driver works by aid of the side 
lever, finally entering the slide valve box of cylinder. Gurney 
used steam at a pressure of from 4'9 kg. to 8’4 kg. per cm. 2 
(70 lb. to 120 lb. per sq. in.), the average pressure in the cylinder 
being 2 8 kg. per cm.- (40 lb. per sq. in.). The piston drives the 
back wheel with a connecting rod, and a crank and a wheel by the 
aid of the eccentric gear works the slide valve. The valve mechanism 
is worked by a cord, and by a lever the driver controls the entrance 
of steam into the cylinder, so as to start the car, change its rate 
of speed, run back or stop. After acting in the cylinder the steam 
passes to a kind of condenser cooled outside by the water in 
the tank ; the non-condensed steam goes to the funnel and 
increases the draught. Moreover, the latter was assured by 
a fan diiven by a little steam motor which also drives the 
feed pump This pump receives water from the tank where it 
is heated by the waste steam, and sends it through the smoke- 
box into the top horizontal boiler. To set the boiler working, 
a little pump was worked by hand. Steering was obtained by 
aid of a fifth wheel in front, which, under the action of a lever 
guides the shafts in the required direction. With Gurney cars 
Sir Charles Dance established a regular service between Gloucester 
and Cheltenham, running four journeys daily. It took forty-five 
minutes, or at most an hour, to cover the distance of 14-48 m (9 
miles). These cars travelled a distance of about 6,440 km (4 000 miles) 
from February 21st to June 22nd, 1831, the number of passengers 
being 3,000. On June 23rd the axle of a car broke, and this accident, 
though not serious, was the origin of a severe attack on automobiles. 


EVOLUTION OF THE AUTOMOBILE. 9 

Although great difficulties were placed in the way of Sir Charles 
Dance, he persevered in his attempt to popularise automobilism, and 
in connection with Maudsley and Field he patented a new boiler, 
which,resembling Gurney’s, was of the water-tube type; its tubes were 
arranged crosswise like a large letter X, and at the bottom of the 
legs of the X were two horizontal tubes, extending fore and aft the 
length of the boiler. Smaller tubes started from these horizontal 
tubes, partly at an angle of about 45°, and so disposed as to pass 
each other at the centre of the X, beyond which they were completed 
by means of an elbow and junction pieces. Within these, says 
Beaumont in the Cantor Lectures already alluded to, the water was 



separated from the steam, this latter passing away by pipes on the 
top of the junction pieces, which were connected by horizontal 
cross-tubes, from which the dry steam was taken. A carriage fitted 
with' this boiler is recorded by Sir Frederick Bramwell to have 
worked extremely well; it travelled from London to Reading, a 
distance of about 72'4 km. (45 miles) from Hyde Park Corner, in 
3£ hours, towing a full omnibus all the way. The new boiler was 
considered to have a greater efficiency than the previous ones 
made by Gurney. 

About the autumn of 1831, William Alltoft Summers and 
Nathaniel Ogle made two steam carriages, one of which frequently 
attained the speed of 48%3 km. (30 miles) an hour, according to 
Summers. This vehicle was a treble-bodied phaeton, having only 
three wheels, and when water and fuel were on board weighing only 
3 tons, it being capable of carrying from 16 to 18 passengers. The 

















































































10 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


driving-wheels had a diameter of 1 m. 68 cm. (5 ft. 6 in.), former 
wheels 15 2 cm. (6 in.) larger in diameter having given way at the 
felloe end of the spokes. The boiler, 1 m. 12 cm. (44 in.) high with¬ 
out case, and /I cm. by 914 cm. (28 in. by 36 in.) on was a 
a ei tical water-tube boiler having six rows of tubes, and there were 
internal smoke-tubes, 91 '4 cm. (3 ft.) long. The grate surface was 
o5 m. (6 sq. ft.), and the total heating surface was nearly 23'2 m. 2 
(250 sq. ft.).. The (reputed) 20 h.-p. engine used with this boiler had 
19 cm. (74 in.) cylinders and a stroke of 45'7 cm. (18 in.), and was 
coupled direct to the crank driving axle. 

The good work of Walter Hancock (1799-1852), one of the most 



Fig\ 4. —Hancock’s Steam Omnibus. 


important personages in the history of the automobile will now be 
investigated. 

Aftei having built various types of steam carriage, the first of 
which was a steam tricycle in which the single wheel in front was 
driven by two oscillating cylinders, Hancock invented in 1829-1833 
the omnibus shown by Fig. 4, in which the most characteristic feature 
is the high-pressure boiler, which was economic and efficient. The 
boiler is seen at the back of Fig. 4, a section being shown by Fig. 5. 
The water was contained in vertical compartments A, separated* by 
partitions B, in which were grooves for the circulation of the hot 
gases. These partitions were plates of soft iron, or preferably copper 
m which hemispheres had been hammered on a suitable die, the 
plate being folded down the centre on itself and riveted along the 
edges, so that the concave sides of the hemispheres came one opposite 
another. The embossed sheet was bent to a thin bag form, having 
the hemispheres or bosses on each of its outer sides to rest against 



































































EVOLUTION OF THE AUTOMOBILE. 


11 


those of the next plates, so forming fire tubes. Big central 
holes in the plates were furnished, with bronze or copper rings, which 
together formed the big horizontal tubes perforated with 
holes (see Fig. 5), the top one containing steam and the lower 
one water. Bods L, with screwed ends, carry nuts to tighten the 
lings one against the other, and with rods F hold together all the 
Parts, forming a water-tight box inside the plates shown at C. The 



o o o o o o 

o O O 0 

O O vj O o 

O o o 0 o 

O O O O O o 

o o o © o 

O O O O O O 

o o o o o 

O O o O 0 o 

O O O o o 

o o o o o o 

O O O o 0 

O o o O o o 

O 0/0.0 Q 

o o //on ° ° 

o VO'-' J) o 

0 O o o 

o o O O 

° ° 
o o U'—Vj o o 

o v^xo o 
o o o o o o 

O O Q O O 

O 0 o O o O 

o o o o o 

O O 0 O O O 

O o o o o 

0 O O 0 0 o 

O O O O 0 

O O O o o o 

O o o o o 

o o o 0 

O o o o 

O O O O 0 o 


Fig. 6. 


Fig. 5 . —Hancock’s Boiler. Fig. 6.—Plate of Hancock’s Boiler. 


feed water entered the boiler through the pipe shown at M, and 
its level was shown in the vertical tube furnished with gauge cocks; 
the steam made its exit through the pipe N. All the parts were 
enclosed in a box shown in Fig. 4, the box itself being inside an 
outer shut casing containing the grate, which was automatically fed 
with coke; a current of air was supplied by a fan in the centre of 
the underpart of the car. The steam worked an engine having two 
vertical cylinders which drove the feed pump, the fan, and especially 
a shaft which transmitted motion by chain pulleys to the rear axle- 
The steam on leaving the cylinders passed to the fire-box, crossed 
the grate, and escaped invisibly and without noise from the funnel- 
The wheels, with cast iron hubs, had wood spokes compressed 
































































































12 


THE AUTOMOBILE . 


between two metal discs. Ihe outer disc on each driving wheel had 
cast, on it two projections, with which two similar projections come 
into contact to transmit motion from the motor. This system of 
contact allowed the two wheels, though made interdependent by the 
motor parts, to turn about 100 in relation to one another, a 
sufficient amount lor ordinary turns. For sharp turns the motor 
parts had a special screw device, by which the outside wheel made 
several turns whilst the other wheel remained motionless. The com¬ 
plication of this system may be contrasted with the modern differen¬ 
tial gear, to the greater appreciation of the latter. Hancock built 
nine cars, six of them having boilers like that just described, which 
gave very good service. For 20 weeks, in 1836, live of these vehicles 
lormed a regular service between Stratford, Paddington, and Islington, 
carrying m all 12,761 passengers and running 6,760 km. (4,200 miles)." 
Thus Hancock achieved a practical success, so far as proving the pos¬ 
sibility ol steam locomotion on common roads, though it is doubtful 
whether his experience pointed to the possibility, at that date, of any 
commercial success. His work was greatly in advance of anything 
preceding it or immediately succeeding it; but still, the best of his 
coaches, provided but poor comfort for passengers, who, though 
seated m front of the motor, must have been subject to consider¬ 
able vibration, resulting from the employment of powerful and un¬ 
balanced engines, and the transmission of their power by rough 

chain gear. Hancock accomplished much, but left much more to 
be accomplished. 

Although Hancock’s work overshadows that of his contempo¬ 
raries, some mention must be made of two or three other inventors, 
the products of whose ingenuity appeared sometime in or near 
the fourth decade of the 19th century. Macerone and Squire 
in the year 1834-1835, made and operated a steam coach fitted' 
with a vertical water-tube boiler containing about 80 vertical tubes 
connected top and bottom by small stay tubes. There was a 
central steam receiver, and the engine worked at a maximum steam 
pressure of 8 5 kg. per cm.- (150 lb. per sq. in.). Such a steam 
pressure was far m advance of practice which obtained many years 
a ter, and, indeed, big pressures are only now becoming popular. The 
engines used had pistons of 19 cm. (74 in.) diameter, and 40 cm. 
(15J in.) stroke ; the cylinders were fixed on the perch-pole under¬ 
frame, and coupling was direct to a crankshaft which formed the 


13 


EVOLUTION OF THE AUTOMOBILE. 

driving axle. As m previous cases, the use of a crank-axle caused much 
trouble, which subsequently was avoided by the arrangement devised 
by Hancock as described on p. 12. The almost self-feeding furnace 
was fed with the coke fuel from a hopper, the forced draught beino- 
supplied by a fan-pulley, driven from one of the road wheels The 
average hourly speed obtained is reported to have been 22-5 km. (14 
miles), and the total distance run by the coach was 2,735 km (1 700 
miles. Beaumont characterises as “ absolutely untrue ” the widely- 

published statement that this distance was covered without any 
noteworthy repair. 

Joseph Gibbs patented, in 1830, a boiler which he, in associa¬ 
tion with Chaplin, afterwards employed on a steam tractor. -The 
boiler had a nearly rectangular fire-box, delivering into two spiral tubes 
down which combustion products passed and escaped about 61 cm. 
(2 ft.) from the ground. The fire-box was water-jacketed partly, and 
the fire was forced by a fan blast. Friction clutch bands, like 
eccentric straps, were used for gripping either or both of the naves 

of the driving wheels, so that either could be loosened when tummy 
corners. 

Mention will now be made of I)r. Church, who applied many 
ingenious ideas in building automobiles, J. Scott Russell, and many 
others, who ran public cars at speeds approaching 24 km. (15 miles) 
an hour, and it would be unfair not to recognise in their vehicles the 
germ of many devices now in current use. 

Dr. Church, of Birmingham, constructed elaborate but com¬ 
fortable steam coaches between 1832 and 1835, and in them were 
introduced some novelties in connection with spring wheels and 
water-tube boilers. Church’s boilers were of two kinds (1). fire¬ 
box and water-tube, and (2) smoke-tube boilers. Beaumont con¬ 
siders the water-space to be too confined, and the firing to be more 
difficult than with modern boilers, though with slight modifications 
Church’s originals might do excellent service even now. 

Somewhere about 1840 J. Scott Russell built six steam coaches 
and these were operated, both in England and Scotland, from 
that date until as late as 1857. No feature of them calls for 
particular mention. 

Gear-driven front steering wheels and gear-driven back wheels 
were employed in a coach made in 1840 by F. Hills, of Deptford, 
in which the underframe resembled that used in railway practice 


14 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


with respect to the spring suspension and carrying the driving axle 
between the pairs of horn-plates. Hills was the first in connection 
with automobile practice to allow the wheels to rotate differentially 
on turning corners. One of his coaches ran from London to Hastings 

a distance of 206 km. (128 miles)—in one day, the load probably 
being nine passengers, a driver, conductor, and stoker. This coach 
had two engines with 254 cm. (10 in.) cylinders and 457 cm. (18 in.) 
stroke, and they were coupled direct to the main crank axle. The 
two 1 m. 98 cm. (6 ft. G in.) driving wheels were inside the main 
bearings, and loose upon the crank, and either or both could be 
driven by the crank through clutches operated by the driver. For 
turning ordinary road curves, the clutch projections engaging with 
the wheels permitted nearly half a revolution of freedom; and for 
turning sharp curves, one of the clutches had to be thrown out. The 
boiler on Hill’s coach was tubular, and weighed 1,420 kg. (28 cwt.), 
not including the weight of water carried with it. The water tanks 
were of 545 1. (120 gal.) capacity, and, on a journey, at every 128 km. 
(8 miles) a supply of from 363 1. to 454 1. (80 to 100 gal.) of water 
had to be taken on board. The steam pressure used was from 4-2 kg. 
to 4 9 kg. per cm. 2 (60 lb. to 70 lb. per sq. in.), and the speed was as 
much as 402 km. or 48*3 km. (25 or 30 miles) an hour. Hill 
invented and patented a two-speed gear of the lathe back gear type, 
and a differential gear, but does not appear to have used either. 

William Worby’s agricultural self-moving machine, though 
stiictl) speaking hardly an automobile, may here be mentioned as 
illustrating the progress made in the application of steam in the 
early decades of the 19th century. In 1842 Worby exhibited this 
self-mover at the Royal Agricultural Society’s Bristol show, and 
its purpose was to ha\e its own threshing machine. Apparently 
this was the first road engine driven by pitch chain, and without 
doubt the first driven by a rotary engine. 

As may be seen by a comparison of dates, few of the above 
vehicles were made prior to Hancock’s, though most of them after, 
but in nearly all cases were they abandoned, showing fairly con¬ 
clusively that the only really practicable vehicle was Hancock’s. 
Most of them were incapable of continuous service, owing either 
to the great discomfort their crude construction and more or less 
frequent breakdowns caused passengers, or to the great expense of 
running them and keeping them in repair. 



EVOLUTION OF THE AUTOMOBILE. 15 

. , The . n ® w style of locomotion seemed to have acquired abiding 
ng its m England, when certain regrettable accidents were a signal 
or a regular attack. The campaign was conducted by the railway 
companies and carrying companies, who regarded automobiles as a 

dangerous rival; and in 1836 the Locomotive Act was passed by 
1 arliament. 

Some persons attach but little importance to the part played 
by the malignity of the railway companies in the fall of the steam 
road carriage from popular favour, and rather attribute the failure 
to defective mechanism, the frequency and gravity of damage, ex¬ 
penses tor repairs, and the high cost of running. Be that as it 
may, it is a fact that automobile owners in England had to pay 
extoidonate, and, indeed, prohibitive tolls, on the turnpike roads; 
for instance, between Prescot and Liverpool the coach toll was 5s., 
but for steam carriages it was £2 8s.; on the Bathgate road the 
tolls respectively were 5s. and £1 7s. Id.; and on the road between 
Ashburnham and lotnes the 3s. toll for coaches rose to £2 for steam 
carriages. Heavy taxes were levied on the tariffs for automobile 
tianspoits. The wheels had to have an exaggerated width of tyre 
oi weie heavily taxed. On roads a man had to walk in front of the 
cai waving a red Hag, a restriction tantamount to prohibition. In 
fact, until August 15th, 1896, the date when the Locomotive Act 
was repealed, there were only some traction engines and a very 
few light motor cars running in England. 

The useful history of the development of the Automobile in 
England from the year 1840 to about 1895 can be summed up very 
briefly, as there is but little of importance to chronicle, the restrictions 
mentioned in the last paragraph effectually hindering development 
in any direction. Some three-wheel road steamers made their appear¬ 
ance, notable among these being those made for the Earl of Caithness, 
and for the Marquis of Stafford, by Picketts of Stafford. One of these 
vehicles weighed 30 cwt., carried three or four persons and a stoker, 
and had a locomotive form of boiler, and a horizontal engine; on one 
end of the engine crank-shaft was a pitch chain pinion driving the 
91 cm. (3 ft.) driving wheels at a ratio of 1 to 2|. The steamer made 
by Ricketts for the Earl of Caithness was very similar, but it weighed 
2'5 tons, and the main axle was driven by gearing instead of chain. 
The Carrett and Marshall road steamer (1861), known as the “Fly¬ 
by-Night,” also had three wheels, and whilst it was able to carry eight 


16 


TEE AUTOMOBILE . 


or nine persons, including the stoker, its weight was more than 6 tons. 
R W. Thompson’s invention in 1845 of the pneumatic tyre, having a 
leather outer cover and a canvas-rubber inner tube deserves recording. 
Beaumont’s papers (1897) give the names of persons who constructed 
road steamers during the period above mentioned, but none of those 
vehicles is important, though that of H. P. Holt (1866-67) had some 
claim to originality; in it the two driving wheels were chain-driven by 
two little double-cylinder engines running independently, in the 
manner suggested by James more than forty years previously. The 
boiler was of the fire-engine type and had Field tubes; the exhaust 
from the engines passed into a cast-iron box forming a baffle-plate at 
the bottom of the uptake ; the superheated exhaust, almost noiseless 
and generally invisible, issued from five jets. A steam brougham, 
constructed by Mackenzie, employed a similar device. Practically the 
only other development in England prior to 1890 that is worth 
recording here is that of Perkins, whose one-wheeled steam-liorse or 
tractor (1870) had a Thompson pneumatic tyre, with a steel chain-link 
tyre outside it. The boiler was carried immediately over the driving 
wheel, and had a water tank on one side of it, and on the other a 
small high-speed engine connected by bevelled gearing to the road 
wheel. The average steam pressure used in the engine was 17 5 kg. 
per cm. 2 (250 lb. per sq. in.) during experiments made with a light 
van weighing 2,900 kg. (57 cwt.) with load. The speed was only three 
miles an hour, and the steam horse could haul only about double its 
own weight. 

It was in France that the automobile idea was destined to revive. 
It had slumbered during the 100 years which followed the invention 
of the Cugnot trolley. In fact, nothing worthy of note is to be 
found during this long period of time except the steam wagon 
constructed in 1828 by Pecqueur, chief of the workshops of the 
Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, and the running of some traction 
engines. In the Pecqueur wagon the two driving wheels were keyed 
on the two parts of the rear axle, connected by the inventor’s planet 
gearing, the origin of the present differential or balance gear. The 
fore-carriage alone was fitted with springs; it carried the boiler and 
the rotary engine, the movement of which was transmitted to the 
axle by a chain passing round a pulley. This fore-carriage moved 
around a pivot by means of a toothed sector gearing with the lower 
pinion of the vertical shaft of the steering bar. The axle arms 


EVOLUTION OF THE AUTOMOBILE. l7 

of these wheels were pivoted vertically in forks at the ends of the 
axle; but these arms were connected, so as to remain parallel 
1 Hus, m the Pecqueur wagon, is found the germ of all the mechanism 
ot the modern automobile, and had all subsequent inventors been 
acquainted with it, many useless endeavours might have been spared. 

In 1835 Dietz constructed an ordinary road traction engine 
He was the first to discover the utility of indiarubber tyres. Between 
the wooden felloe and the iron tyre of each wheel was placed tarred 
felt, cork, and, finally, indiarubber, secured by cheeks bolted on 
to the felloe. In 1856 Lotz ran a steam passenger carriage, steered 
by means of a single front wheel. In 1866 Seguier suggested the 
idea of driving each wheel by a separate motor, and it was applied 
in 1870, by Michau. 1 

A grand awakening followed after this long period of slumber. 
As early as 1862 Lenoir, followed in 1870 by Ch. Ravel, had 
endeavoured to employ gas motors for propelling vehicles, and in 
1873 Amedee Bollee built L’Obeisscinte, a steam car capable of carrying 
twelve passengers; it had a Field boiler and two cylinders, inclined 
at an angle of 40°, acting upon the rear axle, and could be steered 
easily, as the fore-carriage was constructed with two pivots, in 
accordance with Akermann’s invention. A more improved car left 
the workshops of Bollee, at Mans, in 1880. This was La Nouvelle 
the omnibus which, 15 years later, was to cover, in 90 hrs. 3 mins. 
1,200 km. (745 miles) in the famous race from Paris to Bordeaux 
and back (see p. 558). 

Serpollet applied his new boiler to a tricycle in 1888, and then 
to a car, with four seats, which was run in Paris. In the same year 
Count Albert cle Dion, Georges Bouton, and Trepardoux constructed 
a steam tricycle with its driving wheel behind, and in 1889 they 
exhibited a steam car; then in 1893 they built a traction engine 
capable of hauling any kind of vehicle at a speed of 45 km. (24 miles) 
per hour. Shortly afterwards Le Blant’s traction engine appeared, 
and also Scotte’s road train; and thus it appears that by this time 
steam had acquired a definite place in automobile locomotion. 

With regard to petrol motors, which were to make good for lost 
time in a brilliant manner, Lenoir had, as early as 1862, employed 
a gas motor fed with carburetted air instead of gas to drive a car 
which ran in three hours from Paris to Joinville-le-Pont, but the 
relatively great weight of the motor, and small number of piston 
c 


18 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


strokes (about 100 per minute) resulted in very low speed, and 
hindered success. Mention was also made, without stating that it 
ever ran, of a petrol car built by Siegfried Markus, of Vienna, 
in 1877. However, it may be said that petrol spirit never really 
worked a car until the end of 1883, by which time Delamare- 
Deboutteville had constructed what is thought to be the first gas 
tricycle which actually ran on the public road. The tricycle motor 
received illuminating (coal) gas compressed at 10 kg. per cm. 2 
(14*2 lb. per sq. in.) in two metal vessels. Working with Malandiiy 
the inventor just named made a carburetter, which first was applied 
to their fixed motor, and then to that of a petrol car. Their patent 
specification of February 12th, 1884, appears to give them the 
priority often ascribed to Daimler or Benz, whose petrol cars fol¬ 
lowed in 1886, and had an equally brilliant career. However, the 
general employment of petrol spirit is due to two Frenchmen—the 
late Levassor and his companion Panhard, licensees of the Daimler 
patents in France, who, in 1889, exhibited in Paris a tramcar having 
a Daimler motor. In 1891 a Peugeot car, also having a Daimler 
motor, ran from Paris to Brest. Study of the progress in petrol 
motors is not mere history, but such a motor is practicable, and, 
indeed, actually a highly successful machine to-day, and its glorious 
stages are marked by the match of the Petit Journal (1894), 
organised through the fertile initiative of Pierre Giffard, the Paris- 
Bordeaux races (1895), Paris-Marseille (1896), Paris-Dieppe (1897), 
Paris-Amsterdam (1898), tour through France (1899), Paris-Bordeaux 
(1899 and 1.901), Richmond trials (1899), Great Britain Automobile 
Club trials (1900), Paris-Berlin (1901), Glasgow trials (1901), and the 
races, including the Paris-Vienna, held on the Continent in 1902. 

Electricity as motive power for automobiles was suggested in 
a practical way a little before petrol. Whilst Rafford was making 
the first experiments with accumulators for tramways, G. Trouve 
constructed, in 1881, a tricycle driven by one of his small motors 
fed by six Plante cells. In 1882 Ayrton tried a tricycle ; in 
1887 Volk a voiturette with three wheels and two seats; in 1888 
Immisch a dogcart with four wheels; in 1893 appeared Pouchain’s 
phaeton, and in 1894 that of Jeantaud. The cab trials of 1898 
and 1899 {see p. 562) demonstrated the possibility of using electric 
cars for public service in town and cities, where there is facility 
for the frequent charging of the batteries. 



19 


CHAPTER II. 

MOTIVE AGENTS FOR AUTOMOBILES. 

In considering the available forms of motive power for use in 
automobiles, it may be said that steam, petroleum and its pro¬ 
ducts, and electricity are the only agents in use for the propulsion 
of road vehicles. The question as to whether they could not be 
beneficially auxiliated or replaced by others is suggested when 
running through the long list of the sources of energy employed 
lor various purposes. In the case of compressed air and hot 
water for tramway traction, Marcel Deprez has given a very clear 
answer. (Conference of the Automobile Club of France, Genie 
Civil , 20th February, 1897, and following.) It seems that, all else 
equal, preference should be given, as regards automobiles, to the 
agent possessing the maximum specific power, that is to say, that 
agent which, for a unit of weight, will produce the greatest 
number of kilograminetres or foot-pounds. Of course, the weight 
of the requisite machinery for converting the agent to power 
together with that of all accessory appliances, must be taken into 
account. The facilities for * employing this specific power also 
must be considered. These two characteristic factors of aptitude 
for road traction in the various agents of energy will now be 
studied, beginning with those in current use. 

It is in burning coal in a fire-box, utilising the heat produced 
to vaporise the boiler-water under pressure, and making this steam 
act on the piston of an engine cylinder, that the potential energy 
of coal is realised; or, to speak more plainly, it is in this way 
that the quantity of heat represented by the coal is transformed 
into work; 1 kg. (2-2 lb.) of coal or coke represents from 8,000 
to 9,000 calories, and a calory (one-fourth of a British heat unit) 
is equivalent to 125 kgm. (904 ft.-lb.). Therefore, in theory, 1 kg. 
of coal represents 3,400,000 kgm. (246,000,000 ft.-lb.). Practical 
utilisation of this energy is easy; the steam locomotive, that 
marvellous engine, is a manifest proof of this. Hauling a load ot 
c 2 


20 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


150 t. (147 tons) at a speed of, say, 96*5 km. (00 miles) an hour, 
it vaporises 8 kg. (17*6 lb.) of water per kg. (2*2 lb.) of fuel, 
giving at the wheel tyres 25,000 available kgm. (180,880 ft.-lb.) 
per kg. of steam, that is, 200,000 kgm. (1,447,000 ft.-lb.) per kg. 
ot coal burnt in the fire-box. Milandre and Bouquet propose 
the employment of ether instead of water on account of the 
economic results obtained with the Susine fixed motor. Ether 
may have a greater specific power, but it is not likely that 
such an expensive and dangerous agent will drive water from 
the field. 

Passing on to petroleum and the products of its distillation, 
it is admitted that 1 kg. (2'2 lb.) of the heavy oil, petroleum, 
represents at least 10,000 calories (252 British heat units); and 
the calorific power of petrol spirit is hardly less than that of the 
petroleum. Aiine Witz ascribes a calorific power of 11,400 calories 
(2,8/4 British heat units) to a good petrol spirit (density 0*700), 
and about the same for petroleum (density 0*850). (For the 
distinction between “petroleum” and “petrol spirit,” see p. 84.) 
To utilise this potential energy a carburetted mixture is formed 
with the air and with the hydrocarbon (oil or spirit), and this 
mixture then is exploded in the cylinder of a motor. The effective 
work given by 1 kg. (2*2 lb.) of petroleum at the wheel tyres is 
estimated by Deprez at 750,000 kgm. (5,500 ft.-lb.), but a much 
smaller estimate may be accepted; that quoted by Deprez re¬ 
presents a consumption of 0*5 1. (*88 pt.) of petroleum per horse¬ 
power hour. Now the very exact tests to which the cars which 
ran in the Times Hevcild trials at Chicago (see p. 559) were subjected 
demonstrated the average consumption to be 2*5 1. (4*4 pt.) of spirit 
per horse-power hour, measured at the wheel tyre. This con¬ 
sumption corresponds to 150,000 kgm. (1,085,000 ft.-lb.) available 
at the wheels. No doubt, since the Chicago race, run in 1895, 
the consumption of oil by traction motors has fallen, but it is still 
much greater than Deprez s estimate, so that if the power avail¬ 
able at the tyres is taken at 250,000 kgm. (1,808,300 ft.-lb.) it will 
not be far from the truth. Moreover, a very simple calculation 

leads to this figure : the 750,000 kgm. (5,400,000 ft.-lb.), available at 

the tyres, is equivalent to an efficiency of equals 17 per cent.; 
4,250,000 kgm. (30,600,000 ft.-lb.) is taken as the theoretical power 
given by 1 kg. (2*2 lb.) of petroleum. Now, very good fixed 



21 


MOTIVE AGENTS FOR 


AUTOMOBILES. 


STT 1110t0r , S ’ espe ? lally Priestman motors, give an efficiency of 
only 13 per cent, on their pulley shaft, whilst consuming 0-625 1 

if whffih P n r ii 0rSe ' P T r h0Ur ' SUCh a motor ’ “ the construction 
ot winch neither weight nor encumbrance has to be considered, is 

. } “ 01e economic than an automobile motor in which 

weight and dimensions must be reduced to a minimum. It will 
be shown later (p. 577) that in an automobile motor not more than 
per cent, of the total energy on the driving axle, and only 
° p er cent, at the tyres, can be obtained, owing to losses caused 
in transmission. The energy available at the wheels, then, is equi- 
4,250,000 x 0 055 = 233,750 kgm., or, in round figures, 
250,000 kgm. (1,808,300 ft.-lb.). Employment of a Diesel motor 
o a new type, and perhaps of some ordinary though particularly 
economic motors, like that invented by Petreano, may some day 
make it possible to greatly augment these figures. Practical appli¬ 
cation of petroleum, although the motor is more complicated than 
the steam engine, is possible and, of course, daily realised; the 
application becomes an easier matter when use is made of petrol 
spmt, which, it is hoped, will soon become as common as the 
heavy coal tar oils, the calorific power of which rises to 15,000 
calories (3,800 British heat units) per kg. (2*2 lb.), almost double 
t tat of coke, 1 kg. of these oils could easily vaporise from 13 k°\ 
to 15 kg. (29 lb. to 33 lb.) of water. 


With regaid to electricity, the best secondary batteries, commonly 
called accumulators, or storage batteries, give from 5,000 to 10,000 
kgm. (36,200 ft.-lb. to 72,400 ft.-lb.), says Pisca, whilst Hospitalier’s 
estimate is 7,000 to 8,000 kgm. (50,000 ft.-lb. to 58,000 ft.-lb.): the 
lattei estimate is preferable. The specific power of electricity 
supplied by accumulators is much less than that of petroleum, the 
foimer being scarcely 4 per cent. However, the second condition— 
namely, facility of utilisation—is so well fulfilled that, as will be 
shown later, the electric car is quite possible. 

1 he suggested substitutes for the three above agents will now be 
considered, taking in the first place gas under pressure and com¬ 
pressed air. As regards air, its native density, even under heavy 
pressure, is very slight, and enables it to accumulate considerable 
energy; 1 kg. (2 2 lb.) of air compressed at 45 atmospheres is equiva¬ 
lent to not less than 20,765 kgm. (150,200) ft.-lb.). It must, how¬ 
ever, be confined, in a receptacle weighing thirteen times more 


22 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


than itself, so that the specific power of this same confined air is 
not more than 1,608 kgm. (11,600 ft.-lb.). This cannot compare with 
4,250,000 theoretic kgm. (30,600,000 ft.-lb.), and 250,000 kgm. 
(1,808,300 ft.-lb.) effective at the wheels given by 1 kg. (22 lb.) of 
petroleum. As regards practical employment of compressed air, its 
use on public tramways will be familiar. The air compressed at 45; 
60 and even 90 atmospheres, by aid of a special apparatus, which 
must be prevented from heating, is carried in receptacles on the car. 
The compressed air does work by its expansion in the motor cylinder, 
but as this expansion would be followed by cooling and formation of 
ice in the cylinder and exhaust pipes, the compressed air must be 
heated before use, by making it bubble through hot water, or by 
passing through heated pipes. All this certainly complicates the 
use of compressed air as regards automobiles, but its use is possible 
for tramcars which, whilst always running along the same road, and 
periodically returning to the charging stations, are sufficiently big 
to carry heavy receptacles containing the fluid. Finally, the decrease 
of traction strain offered by the rails and the number of passengers 
simultaneously transported make the cost per car-kilometre or per 
car-mile reasonable, though still relatively great. (With the 
Mekarski tramways of Paris and Nantes, whose cars each weigh 12 
tons and carry 50 passengers, the cost per car-kilometre is 3'3d., 
that is, 5'3d. per car-mile ; in the former figures, the compressed air 
is represented by l'9d., repairs of pipes 0'70d., and repairs and lubri¬ 
cation of the car, 0'67d.) 

This would not be feasible for an automobile which must find 
supplies easily and has not space to carry sufficient tanks for a long 
journey; and consequently, in spite of its real advantages as regards 
cleanliness, ease of starting and stopping by aid of a valve, and the 
impossibility of fire, this system of propulsion does not seem to be 
suitable for automobiles; this fact explains the failure of experiments. 
W. Mann in 1822, Wright in 1830, and Fordham in 1832, prepared 
plans for compressed air automobiles which have never been 
executed. In 1840, two French engineers, Andraud and Tessie 
du Motay, built the first compressed air car, and on July 9th of 
the same yeai it made a trial trip at Chaillot on a railway track • 
its structure would have enabled it also to run on roads, but 
there is doubt whether it ever ran on any other occasion than 
that mentioned. Recently, Hartley of Chicago constructed a 



I 


MOTIVE AGENTS FOR AUTOMOBILES. 23 

tricycle with a reservoir between the two front bearing and steering 
wheels.. This air container drove a two-cylinder motor, which 
transmitted its motion by means of two chains to the rear driving- 
wheel. An average speed of 8 miles an hour was obtained; but 
though the Chicago Postal Authorities endeavoured to substitute 
it for some of their ordinary cars, it is not thought to have 
much of a future, even for purely city service. Ravel states, 
in a French publication, that this system, tried about 1888 

on a tramway, showed a loss of 70 per cent, by the transmission 
gear. 

Finally, at the exhibition of 1899, the firm of Molas, Lamielle, 
and Tessier exhibited a heavy goods vehicle; but, though it may 
be regarded as the medium between the light car, for which 
the employment of air seems impossible, and the tramcar, for 
which it is used daily, it is not believed that this application 
•will lead to anything. The vehicle in question, originally con¬ 
structed for animal traction, was adapted with only the minimum 
number of alterations actually required for its new use. The air 
supply is said to be carried in bottles made of a special kind of 
soft steel, which does not burst, but tears like lead when the 
pressure is too great to be withstood. Some further particulars 
should be given of this steel, which so surely obviates the danger 
of storing gases compressed until they give a pressure of not less 
than 300 kg. per cm. 3 (4,270 lb. per sq. in.). Many tramcars in 
France employed air compressed to only 45 atmospheres, and in 
any case it is not believed that the pressure in the above case ex¬ 
ceeds twice that, whereas Molas, Lamielle, and Tessier make it more 
than six times. In America, it is said, the air is now compressed 
to this pressure. A suitable expansion brings the compressed air 
to the pressure at which it is employed in the cylinders, namely, 
60 kg. to 4 kg. per cm. 2 (854 lb. to 57 lb. per sq. in.), and the 
precautions taken to prevent the formation of ice are not stated. 
The motor, composed of four single-acting cylinders, is placed with 
its adjuncts in the car, under the driver’s seat, out of the way of 
mud and dust; and the makers say that a special system of dis¬ 
tribution enables the air to be employed to within the last few 
cubic centimetres. Normally, the motor makes only 280 revolutions 
per minute, and from 1 h.p. to 35 h.p. can be obtained. The 
four pistons directly drive the intermediary shaft carrying the 


24 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


little sprocket wheel, which, by means of chains, impels the driving 
wheels, these being at the back of the vehicle, and furnished with 
sprocket pulleys; a stretcher, said to be similar to two guide rollers, 
keeps the chain links in the pockets intended for their reception. 
Steering is made possible by means of a pivoted fore-carriage. 
The constructors give the following figures:— 


Weight of car . 



1,400 kg. 

3,090 lb. 

„ „ motor and adjuncts ... 

• > • 

• • • 

450 kg. 

990 lb. 

„ compressed air tanks 

• . • 

... 

1,050 kg. 

2,315 lb. 

„ „ car in running order... 

• • • 

• • • 

2,900 kg. 

6 500 lb. 

„ „ useful load . 

• • • 

... 

2,000 kg. 

4,410 lb. 

„ „ useful load compared 

weight of loaded car. 

with 

total 

40'8 per cent. 

Speed per hour . 



10 km. 

6'2 miles. 

Cost of motor car. 

• • • 


10,000 fr. ... 

£400. 

Cost price per ton per kilometre 

for 

daily 



journey of 50 km. (31 miles) 

... 


# 0-295 fr. ... 

2 s. 8d. 

Cost price per ton per kilometre 

for 

daily 



journey of 100 km. (62 miles) 

... 

t 0-196 fr. ... 

Is. 8d. 


Is. /d. per ton per mile. f is. id. per ton per mile. 


These figures show greater economy than those obtained in the 
Versailles competition in 1897 (see p. 560), but they cannot be 
compared legitimately until they have been verified by tests made 
and controlled as carefully as those of the competition. Until 
then, it will be more economic, it is thought, to burn coal in the 

boiler of an automobile than in that of a compressor to feed the 
car. 

Almost analogous conclusions apply to the employment of 
illuminating gas in some Lutrig tramcars with an expenditure of 
800 1. (1,400 pt.) of gas per car km.; this form of energy was 
tested m 1883 by Delamare - Deboutteville on a tricycle (see 

p. 18). y K 

. re & ard to the employment of liquefied gases and carbonic 
acid, it. may be said that the specific power of a liquefied gas is 
proportional to the amount of work expended to bring it to this 
state. The method of utilising this work is very similar to that 
of compressed gases; when the pressure which keeps the gas 
liquid is removed, the gas returns to its former state, its ex¬ 
pansive force working the piston, and the gas absorbing a 











MOTIVE AGENTS FOR AUTOMOBILES. 25 

quantity of heat equivalent to the amount of which it was 
eprived by the process of liquefaction. As the heat at which 
< ie liquid gas is vaporised is always much less than that of water, 
and also for many other causes, water is much preferable to 
ique ec gases. Liquefied gases are less inconvenient to carry. 
Power. bein g equal, than compressed gases, but the danger of 
explosion is greater. In April, 1898, at a meeting of the Franklin 
institute, F. Roberts exhibited a 25 li.p. horizontal motor driven by 
carbonic acid, the total weight of which, bed-plate included did 
not exceed 38'5 kg. (84*8 lb.). There were three double-acting 
cylinders of 50 mm. (2 in.) diameter, and 50 mm. throw, and the 
slide valve gear was governed by cams. The force of 25 h.p. 
corresponded to a pressure of 110 kg. per cm. 2 (1,564 lb. per sq. in.), 
and a speed of 2,000 revolutions per minute. The New Power Co. 
of New York constructed a tramcar motor like a steam engine, 
although the valve gear and some other details differed; the 
caibonic acid, accumulated in steel tanks under a pressure of 
70 kg. per cm. 2 (995 lb. per sq. in.), ran directly to the cylinders 
without any expansion or reducing valve, but with a re-heater. 
The cylinders are 10 cm. (4 in.) diameter and 15 cm. (6 in.) 
throw; taking the cost of carbonic acid at New York to be only 
0.37 fi. per kg. (3^d. per lb.), that of a horse-power hour in a 
24-hour run is only 0 65 fr. (ORd.). The point to ascertain is 
whether the working will ever be practicable for an automobile. 
Motois driven by liquid carbonic acid and hot water have been 
invented by Francq and Marchena, but they seem very compli¬ 
cated for road traction. 

Liquid air, according to F. Richard, will not give the powerful 
light motoi required for automobile locomotion. Employed for 
producing power and without reckoning the friction of the 
piston oi the great space occupied, a liquid air motor gives only 
0'454 h.p. in return for the 73 li.p. expended by the compressor 
which produced it. There is nothing attractive in an efficiency 
of 06 per cent. It need hardly be said that these figures, 
like the preceding, must be accepted with reserve. Now is 
not the time to express any opinion respecting the future of 
liquid air, which might indeed become a marvellous agent of 
transport. 

Water heated to 200 , at a pressure of 15 atmospheres, as in 


26 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


the Lam-Francq locomotive, accumulates 42 calories (10*5 British 
heat units) per kilogramme (2*2 lb.) of water, and thus a tank of 
water may represent 17,850 kgm. (12,850 ft.-lb.). Deprez states 
that ten per cent, of this work can be utilised, that is, 1*785 kgm. 
(12,850 ft.-lb.) per kg. (2*2 lb.) transported ; this is far less than 
the energy furnished by petroleum. For practical application of 
the process the car tanks are filled with hot water, and placed in 
communication with the cylinders by means of a valve, and part 
of the water is vaporised, borrowing the requisite heat from the 
remainder of the water, and the steam thus formed drives the 
piston. However, when the boiler temperature has fallen to 150° C., 
and the pressure to five atmospheres, the energy must be renewed. 
Thus, in one way, hot water is similar to compressed air, being 
suitable for tramways, but inconvenient for automobiles. Conse¬ 
quently, although the charging apparatus is less complex than 
with air (a simple boiler being used instead of a compressor 
worked by an engine), and although the specific power of hot water 
is greater than -that of compressed air, the employment of the 
former for automobile locomotion seems to be as futile as that 
of the latter. It is doubtful, indeed, whether a hot water car 
has ever been constructed. Recently Hutin and Leblanc patented 
a system in order the better to use steam m multiple expansion 
motors having several cylinders (the inventors speak of six), 
a set of rotary machines, or in turbines. But in the considerations 
they advance in favour of their idea there does not appear to be 
anything that can influence the opinion above expressed that hot 
water is not a desirable motive agent for employment in auto¬ 
mobiles. 

Since the end of 1892, when Moissan in France and Wilson 
in America invented a method to manufacture calcium carbide 
on a large scale (by reducing calcium oxide with carbon in an 
electric furnace), commercial manufacture of acetylene has become 
easy by simply bringing the carbide into contact with water 
One kg. (2*2 lb.) of carbide gives theoretically 340 1. (12 cub. ft.), 
and practically 300 1. (10*6 cub. ft.) of acetylene, which is capable 
of furnishing 3,500 calories (800 British heat units), which is about 
one-third of that furnished by petroleum. Since its origin this 
gas has been employed for lighting, and the question arose early 
whether the 1,487,500 kgm. (10,710,000 ft.-lb.) it gives per kg. 


MOTIVE AGENTS FOR AUTOMOBILES. 27 

(2-2 lb.) could not be utilised for motive power. An initial diffi¬ 
culty was immediately encountered; acetylene, an endothermic body 

that is, formed with absorption of heat—is a powerful explosive, 
which is dangerous to handle. Berthelot and Vieille demonstrated 
that as long as its pressure does not much exceed that of one 
atmosphere, neither the electric spark nor an ignited point causes 
explosion. With pressure greater than two atmospheres, an ex¬ 
plosion (not combustion, but mere decomposition) may occur in the 
same circumstances, air not being present. This liability to explosion 
increases with pressure. 

There has been talk of a new carbide designated “ carbolite,” dis¬ 
covered by H. L. Hartenstein, a chemist of Chicago, for the manu¬ 
facture of which a works is to be built at Hammond (Indiana). 
This carbide, obtained by suitable treatment of blast furnace slags, 
could be made at a cost of 25 fr. (£1) per ton, instead of 500 fr! 
(£20), which at present is the cost of calcium carbide. Under 
the action of water 1 kg. (2'2 lb.) of it is said to give 300 1. (10 6 
cub. ft.) of ethylene, which can be used instead of acetylene. But 
some persons consider carbolite to be merely a mixture of calcium 
carbide and aluminium, which in contact with water gives a mix¬ 
ture of methane and acetylene of the same composition as ethylene, 
but without containing any whatever, and they add that ethylene 
contains 65 per cent, less carbon than acetylene does, and conse¬ 
quently cannot be a successful competitor. 

Liquid acetylene has the maximum explosiveness, and in this 
respect is comparable to gun-cotton, and its employment in this form, 
so convenient for automobiles, must therefore be abandoned. At most, 
all that can be done is to compress the gas in the same way as is done 
in Paris by the Societe des Produits Chemiques, who now sell it in 
steel receptacles weighing 20 kg. (44 lb.), and containing 2501. (8-8 sq. ft.) 
under a pressure of 10 kg. per cm. 2 (142 lb. per sq. in.). However, it 
appears that it is better to dissolve it by the Claude and Hess process 
in acetone, which absorbs as much as 300 times its volume, under a 
pressure of 12 kg. per cm. 2 (190 lb. per sq. in.), the bulk of the liquid 
being increased only by one-half; and it yields 275 volumes of the 
gas at atmospheric pressure. This solution does not appear to be 
explosive under the influence of heat when its pressure is not too 
great. According to the experiments of Berthelot and Vieille, 7 1. 
(427 cub. in.) of acetone having dissolved 1,170 g. (41 oz. avoirdupois) 


28 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


of acetylene at a pressure of 8 kg. per cm. 2 (113-7 lb. per sq. in.), did not 
explode in contact with a red hot platinum wire. Similar contact in 
a solution formed at a pressure of 20 kg. per cm. 2 (284'4 lb. per sq. in.) 
caused slight explosions, so it is prudent not to exceed greatly a pres¬ 
sure of 10 kg. per cm. 2 (142 lb. per sq. in.). Supposing the question 
of storage without danger to have been solved, another difficulty 
presenting itself is the violence of the explosion of the mixture 
of gaseous acetylene and air in the cylinder of the motor to be 
worked. Cuinet, with an ordinary four-stroke cycle gas motor, suc¬ 
ceeded in obtaining smooth working, free from jerks, by mixing 
one volume of acetylene with twenty volumes of air. His 6-h.p. 
motor consumed, at half charge, 8021.(11 cub. ft.) of acetylene, and 
at full charge, 1751. (6 cub. ft.) per effective horse-power hour, this 
being nearly three times less than the volume of illuminating (coal) 
gas required for the same motor. With carbide costing 500 fr. (£20) 
per ton, the horse-power hour would thus cost 030 fr. (2.85d.). 
Expeiiments made quite recently by Grover, of Leeds, confirm this 
cost, his estimate being 0’28 fr. (2'66d.). This is expensive, because 
the motor in question, consuming 5161. (18’2 cub. ft.) of illuminating 
(coal) gas at 0 30 fr. per cubic metre ( 08d. per cubic foot), would 
yield the horse-power hour for 010 fr. (0.95d.). Ravel tested one of 
his 2-h.p. two-stroke cycle motors, and found the power of acetvlene 
to be 2Jr times greater than that of coal gas. However, he does 
not think that the great explosive power of acetylene can give all 
its useful effect on the pistons ot detonating gas motors as these 
are built at present; either the acetylene gas must form a large 
percentage of the explosive mixture, and then give but little useful 
work, considering the shattering explosion, or the explosive mixture 
will be weak in acetylene, and then not have sufficient calorific 
power to raise the pressure of the mixed gas to the point that is 
necessary if economic work is to be produced. To avoid the 
difficulty, R. Turr and Ch. Chertemps endeavoured to make use of 
the considerable increase in temperature due to the very sudden 
explosion of acetylene to transform a certain quantity of water into 
steam, and then by expanding this steam to gradually move the 
piston ; but this complicated construction has never been applied. 
The conclusion, then, that the above remarks lead to is that even 
if liquid acetylene could be used without danger, it is still doubtful 
whether it would answer as a motive agent for automobiles. 


29 


MOTIVE AGENTS FOB AUTOMOBILES. 

The substitution of alcohol for petrol spirit in automobile 
motors would probably decrease the unpleasant odour and the 
fouling of the cylinders; and, in the case of France, at any rate, 
there would be the advantage of replacing an imported article by 
a home product, the consumption of which would compensate 
agriculture for the losses it is expected to suffer in consequence of 
the smaller demand for horses and fodder—that is, supposing that 
no method arises for chemically manufacturing alcohol commer¬ 
cially. Fritsch has already proposed to extract alcohol from ethylene, 
which is a carburetted gas forming 2 per cent, in volume 0 /blast 
furnace gas, and which is found also in coke ovens and retorts 
where coal is distilled. The calorific power of alcohol is only very 
slightly more than half that of petrol; thus, theoretically, if the work 
produced by the combustion in the presence of exact proportions 
of oxygen of 1 kg. (2*2 lb.) of petrol spirit is 6*75 horse-power 
hours, and by 1 kg. (2 2 lb.) of 90 per cent, alcohol is 3235 horse¬ 
power hours, it follows that a franc’s worth (9|d.) of alcohol at 
30 francs, per hi. (Is. per gal.) (not including duty) will give 9 
horse power hours, whilst a franc’s worth of petrol spirit^ or of 
petroleum at 0*45 franc per kg. (2d. per lb.) will give 15 horse 
powei hours. It might be objected that in practice, perhaps, some 
very different figures would be obtained, because it is not with 
the strictly proportional amount of oxygen that combustion is 
produced, but with a certain proportion of air which contains 23 
per cent, of oxygen and 77 per cent, of nitrogen; theoretically, 
15117 kg. (33-3 lb.) are needed per kg. (2-2 lb.) of petroleum, 
and only 7-567 (16*0 lb.) per kg. of 90 per cent, alcohol; so the 
great excess of nitrogen absorbs with sheer loss more heat in 
the combustion of petroleum than in that of alcohol. Besides, 
it might be easier to obtain complete combustion with 
alcohol than with petroleum. To elucidate this question, Max 
Ringelmann was commissioned by the Agricultural Society of 
Meaux to make experiments, which he made with petrol spirit 
and impure alcohol (methylated spirit), which were analysed 
by A. Muntz with the results given in the first table on 
p. 30. 

The first experiments were made with a Brouhot four-stroke cycle 
horizontal motor of from 2 horse power to 3 horse power, having- 
electrical ignition, and with a Benz four-stroke cycle tube ignition 


30 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


vertical motor of from 3 to 4 horse power. The results are given 
in the second of the following tables:— 


PROPERTIES OF PETROL SPIRIT AND METHYLATED SPIRIT. 


Properties. 

Petrol Spirit. 

Methylated Spirit. 

Carbon ... 

84‘3 per cent. 

41 "5 per cent. 

Hydrogen . 

15*7 per cent. 

13"0 per cent. 

Oxygen. 

— 

455 per cent. 

Density at 15° C. 

*708 

•834 

Boiling point. 

88° C. 

78-5° C. 

Calories per kg. . 

* 11,359-65 

f 6,52P75 

Weight evaporated per hour per 
dm. 2 (15*5 sq. in.) of surface :— 

1. In experiment room; 18° C. ... 

9*37 g. (0'33 oz.) 

3-47 g. (0-12 oz.) 

2. Outside in the sun ; 25° C. 

47-21 g. (P66 oz.) 

27-08 g. (0-95 oz.) 


* 1,302 British heat units per lb. t 752 British heat units per lb. 


MOTOR CONSUMPTION OF PETROL SPIRIT AND METHYLATED SPIRIT. 



Consumption per Hour. 

Relation of Con¬ 
sumptions. 


Petrol Spirit. 

Methylated Spirit. 

Petrol 

Spirit. 

Methylated 

Spirit. 

Horizontal Motor — 





Empty ... 

1-040 kg. (2-293 lb.) 

2-267 kg. (4-998 lb.) 

1 

2-05 

( Half Charge 
Per h.p. j FuU Charge 

•950 kg. (2-094 lb.) 

1-767 kg. (3-896 lb.) 

1 

P86 

•892 kg. (P966 lb.) 

1-396 kg. (3-078 lb.) 

1 

1-56 

Vertical Motor — 





Empty ... 

•328 kg. (*723 lb.) 

•771 kg. (1-700 lb.) 

1 

235 

f Half Charge 
Per .p. I ]? u ii Charge 

•619 kg. (1-365 lb.) 

1-097 kg. (2-418 lb.) 

i 

1-66 

•407 kg. (-897 lb.) 

•763 kg. (1*682 lb.) 

i 

1*87 


Thus to obtain the same useful work, an average of 1‘89 times more 
alcohol (methylated spirit) was consumed than petrol spirit. Ringel- 
mann calculated the consumption and cost as follows:— 


MOTOR CONSUMPTIONS (RINGELMANN). 



Petrol Spirit. 

- 

Methylated Spirit. 

Petroleum. 

Consumption per ) in weight 

0-400 kg. (0-88 lb.) 

0-756 kg. (1-66 lb.) 

0-438 kg. (0-96 lb.) 

h.-p. hour ) in volume 

Relation of consumption in 

0-565 1. (0-99 pt.) 

0-906 1. (1*6 pt.) 

0-532 1. (0-94 pt.) 

volume . 

105*28 

169-2 

100 

Cost of litre (outside Paris) 

0-50 fr. (4*75d.) 

PO fr. (9"5d.) 

0-30 fr. (2"85d.) 

Cost of horse-power hour ... 

0-28 fr. (2"66d.) 

0-90 fr. (8-55d.) 

0*16 fr. (l"52d.) 














































MOTIVE AGENTS FOR AUTOMOBILES. 


31 


llie figures in the petroleum column are those obtained at the 
international Competition at Meaux, in 1894. 

Thus the relation of the prices of these agents requisite to obtain 
the same power is :— 


Petroleum ... 
Petrol Spirit... 
Methylated Spirit 


1 

1*75 

5-625 


1 -7 . concludes that methylated spirit should be sold at 

17 70 fr P er hL ( 7 ' 65d P er g aL ) to b e equivalent from the economic 
point ol view to petroleum worth 30 fr. per hi. (13d. per gal.) and 

that consequently employment of alcohol in automobile motors is 
out of the question. But this is not all, for owing to the small amount 
oi vapour emitted by alcohol at a temperature of 15° C. to 20° C he 
had to have recourse to devices to make the motor work. Rino-elmann 
made the Brouhot motor run for about 15 minutes with petrol spirit 
and when the average temperature of the discharged gases o- 0t as 
high as 70 J 0. he began to feed the motor with alcohol,' taking care 
however to modify at the same time the composition (as regards the 
proportion ol air) of the explosive mixture in order to obtain com¬ 
plete combustion (because the alcohol in a cylinder charge is as 

2 06 to 1 compared with petrol spirit in a charge). For the Benz 
motor he had a carburetter which by aid of a gas stove was kept at a 
temperature of from 42° to 47° C., found by trial to be the most 
favourable for working the engine, and this carburetter was a constant 
danger of fire. . It will be noticed that Ringelmann compares alcohol 
(methylated spiiit) with petroleum, which latter, however, is employed 
only exceptionally for automobiles, only a distillation of petroleum, here 
known as petrol spirit, being in current use, and, as the admitted cost 
of this is 40 fr. per hi. (17 3d. per gal.) instead of 30 fr. (13d. per gal.) 
it will be found that alcohol at 23-60 fr. per hi. (10-2d. per gal.) in¬ 
stead of 17-70 fr. (7-65d. per gal.) can be used as cheaply as the 
petroleum spirit. Ringelmann estimated alcohol at 100 fr. (£4) per hi 
(22 gal.) at a time when the duty on the hectolitre of methylated spirit 
in France was 37*50 fr. (29s. 8Jd.), but a recent law has reduced it to 

3 fr. (2s. 44d.), so that the price may be reckoned as 67-50 fr. the hi. 
(2s. 5d. per gal.). Moreover, it is hoped that the cost of denaturing 
alcohol, now 7 fr. per hi. (3d. per gal.), will be decreased ; in Germany 
it is considerably less. Thus the cost of methylated spirit would 


32 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


hardly exceed 60 fr. per hi. (2s. 2d. per gal.). The difference between 
this price and that which would make alcohol an economical agent, 
accepting the consumptions as given by Ringelmann, still remains 
noticeable, but there is a very considerable decrease. Moreover 
Ringelmann experimented with motors which were not built to use 
alcohol, and with which it could only be employed by methods not 
acceptable in daily practice; and it may be suggested that adaptation 
of a special carburetter and motor would be the means of removing 
danger and increasing efficiency. The experiments of Petreano tend 
to prove this. Employing an Otto gas motor, 1884 type, giving 5 h.p. 
at 180 revolutions, but furnished with a special carburetter (see 
p. 89) he obtained one indicated horse-power hour for every 0 540 kg 
(1T9 lb.) of alcohol used. With a density of 0 815 that gives 
0 822 1. (P55 pt.). The firm of Kbrting, Hanover, appears to 
have obtained even better results. In March, 1897, experiments 
were made with a motor of the benzine type specially constructed 
for the purpose, and it gave one indicated horse-power per hour, 
with an average consumption of 0‘49 1. (0T6 pt.) of alcohol at 93° C. 
and 0‘815 specific gravity, this corresponding to 0‘612 1. (1 pt.) of 
alcohol per effective horse-power hour. Consumption would hardly 
be greater than that calculated by Ringelmann for petrol (0‘565 1., 
or *99 pt.). If these figures are confirmed, the employment 
of alcohol for motive power now is economical in Germany, where 
alcohol costs from 20 fr. to 30 fr. per hi. (from 8‘6d. to 13d. per 
gal.). Admitting the possibility of methylated spirit cheapening; 
that carburetting may be free from danger; that the methylated 
spirit, in spite of the foreign substances mixed with it, may act 
well in the cylinder; that it may not foul the valves; and that it 
may give odourless combustion, as is hoped, even then its specific 
power will always be less than that of petrol spirit, whose only in¬ 
feriority is the bad odour of the burnt gases, and this in the future, 
perhaps, may be prevented by a better system of combustion. 
There would be no question of alcohol as a substitute for petrol 
spirit did it not involve in France an economical point—namely, 
a market for a product of home manufacture. Nevertheless, 
alcohol (methylated spirit) has resolute advocates, and at their 
head is Petreano, who believes in the future of this fuel for auto¬ 
mobiles, on account of its almost complete absence of odour in 
use, and because in the diffusor which he employs to prepare the 


MOTIVE AGENTS FOB AUTOMOBILES. 33 

carburetted mixture the denaturing substances are separated and 
made . to rest on the bottom like a kind of pitch, which needs 
removing only every twenty-four hours. The denaturing substances 
are heavy benzine and malachite green, and if these were vaporised 
ey would interfere, with the satisfactory employment of the 
alcohol, and would give malodorous residues. This diffusor also 
has the advantage of heating the carburetted mixture, and thus 
preventing separation of the cold alcohol when in contact with the 
hot cylinder. The consequence of such dissociation would be 
inevitable oxidation of the cylinder and its rapid deterioration, the 
scales of pulverulent substance found in the exhaust box when cold 
alcohol is employed leaving no doubt upon this point. Some experi¬ 
ments have already been made with alcohol on automobiles. In Nov., 
1898, alcohol carburetted by the Dusart process, it is believed, was 
tested on a de Dion-Bouton tricycle with good results. In Dec. same 
year Commandant Krebs made brake tests with a Phoenix motor, 
altered by merely enlarging the ordinary intake orifice; he ob¬ 
tained 3-6 h.p. with ordinary 95 per cent, alcohol, 4*2 h.p. with 
Dusart carburetted alcohol, and 44 h.p. with petrol spirit. The 
Societe des Yoitures Henroid sometimes runs its ordinary petrol 
cars , with alcohol, the Henroid distributor-carburetter making this 
possible, but for equal journeys much more alcohol is consumed 
than petrol. The journal Le Velo organised, April 11th, 1899, 
a trial race for alcohol motors from Paris to Chantilly and back. 
Of the ^eight motor-cycles or cars on the list only one, Guttin 
and Co.’s, ran; it travelled the distance of 136 km. (84-5 miles) 
in eight hours eight minutes, the 4 h.p. motor consuming 38 1. 
(8’36 galls.) of alcohol, that is nearly 0.3 1. per km. (‘85 pt. per 
.mile). By way of comparison, it may be remarked that, accord¬ 
ing to experiments made by Brillie with a Gobron and Brillie car 
having a 6 h.-p. motor weighing 850 kg. (1,874 lb.) in running 
order and carrying live persons (a very much heavier car than 
Guttin and Co.’s), the consumption under various road conditions 
was 0-14 1. (0-25 pt.) of petrol spirit per km. (0*62 miles), but this 
is thought to be below the average. These few experiments give 
nothing conclusive, however. Perisse, in a recent communication 
to the French Society of Civil Engineers, has remarked upon the 
vantage of employing, instead of ordinary 90 per cent, alcohol 
containing 10 per cent, of common denaturing substances, the 
D 


34 


THE AUTOMOBILE . 


95 per cent, alcohol made in all agricultural distilleries, or, better 
still, the 98 per cent, alcohol denatured Avith cheap hydro-carbons, 
which would enrich the explosive mixture. The motor should 
also be adapted to the new fuel, instead of employing an ordinary 
petrol motor. 

Perhaps, instead of alcohol, there will be a better chance of 
succeeding with the heavy distillery oils (0-75 amylalcohol and 
0 25 butyl alcohol), which, according to L. Levy, 1 always give, when 
mixed with the volume of oxygen, strictly necessary for their com¬ 
bustion, 4 horse-power hours per kg. (instead of 3235 horse-power 
hours ivitli alcohol and 6 - 75 horse-poAver hours Avitli petrol spirit) 
As the oils cost only about 13-30 fr. per 100 kg. (0 57d. per lb.), 
the combustion of one franc’s Avorth theoretically gives 30 horse- 
poAver hours (instead of 9 Avith alcohol and 15 with petrol spirit). 
The question as to Avhether their employment is practicable has not 
been answered yet, as not the slightest trial has been made. 

There are some Deutz benzine locomotives in Germany, and 
the tramcars of the Saulgau-Herbertingen-Riedlingen line employ a 
14 h.p. Daimler benzine motor. In that country, as far as can be 
judged from a yet insufficient practice, the benzine motor is about 
10 per cent, cheaper than alcohol. Benzine is a bicarbide of 
hydrogen chiefly extracted from coal tars in gas Avorks, and used 
almost entirely for the manufacture of aniline dyes; also, it is 
obtained from residual tar in coke-making by calcination and dis¬ 
tillation of lignite, peat, Avood, etc. Thus, it is much in demand, 
and a neAv application might possibly cause prices to increase and 
make it too dear for traction. 

The employment of gas power may be mentioned very briefly. 
An American invented a motor, employing this material for the 
propulsion of bicycles. A receptacle filled with gas poAver and in 
immediate and intermittent communication Avitli a cylinder where 
the material explodes, seems to us a permanent source of danger 
to the car, and this reason will suffice Avithout giving any others 
for concluding that this agent of energy can meet Avith but little 
future application for automobiles. 




35 


CHAPTER III. 

STEAM BOILERS FOR AUTOMOBILES. 

Automobile boilers being intended (a) to be carried by the car 
speed* o7 6 tL veJT ble ^ dC P endin g «Pon the road and 

less experienced, must In order°to b ^1^™^“* - t0 driV6rS m ° re 
r 1 . i • I ’ olcle i to fulfil these imperative needs of 

thoualT’ a TV nd Securit >'- be W of small volume and weight 

cLswL\7nmv r er b‘ (2) eaSy , t0 g6t fa P idly Under steam “d°of 
nsiderable power, this power being capable of easy regulation and 

l°„ r7t T°°i " k of “ pi ““ Th «” "» 

ln “mlv LL *”, * *” “ th “ “P““ 

taneously. Some already existing boilers have been adapted to 

Botriuhr nd T ™ ged new types have also been constructed, 
th tubular and instantaneous vaporisation boilers have some 

potible thp C ° nmi0 fi ' ^r 6 ' (1)T ° P reTent smok c ^ much as 
possible they are fired with coke when petroleum or other heavy 

oil is not used. (2) Like locomotives, nearly all have an artificial 

draught, produced by injecting exhaust steam into the funnel. Some 

needed' 11 W a b ° Wer ’ Whi ° h is Set t0 work when extra power is 

Tubular boilers are divided into two classes according as the 
tubes are to contain fire or water and steam, and are called fire- 
tube boilers and water-tube boilers. Fire-tube boilers are little 
used on automobiles, because whilst their very long horizontal 
tubes are no inconvenience with locomotives, they are a very great 

one with an ordinary vehicle; and vertical fire-tubes do not utilise 
the heat so well as horizontal tubes. 

As regards fire-tube boilers, that of Leyland, employed by the 
Lancashire Steam Motor Company, is of this type. The tubes are 
vertical, and can be removed with the lid, so as to be conveniently 
cleaned. It is heated by a burner fed by crude petroleum under 
pressure ot boiler steam, which, when the normal pressure is 
attained, partially closes the oil throttle valve, or air compressed 


36 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


overhead, as in the Ley land brake of the Automobile Association, 
Limited, which took part in the Versailles trials of 1898. The 
steam lurry (p. 394) sent by Leyland to the Liverpool trials of 
May, 1898, weighed, .empty, 2,910 kg. (6,400 lb.), could carry 
a useful load of 4 tons, had a boiler which had a heating 
surface of 102 m. 2 metres (110 sq. ft.), and weighed less than 
30 kg. per m. 2 (6 lb. per sq. ft.) of this surface. This boiler, tested 
at a pressure of 35 kg. per cm. 2 (5001b. per sq. in.), was constructed 
to give steam at 14 kg. per cm. 2 (200 lb. per sq. in.), and it required 
13 minutes to get up steam. It was fed by a brass hand pump, 
and on the roof was carried an air-condenser weighing only 43 kg. 
(95 lb.). At full charge the petroleum burnt per hour did not 
exceed 81. (14 pt.). The brake of the Automobile Association, 
Limited, constructed to seat seven passengers and carry luggage 
and some provisions, weighed 1,225 kg. (2,700 lb.) empty, and 
1,850 kg. (4,080 lb.) in running order, and 2,000 kg. (4,400 lb.) 
loaded, was fitted with a boiler that had 108 tubes, a heating 
surface of 4’65 m. 2 (50 sq. ft.), a steam pressure of 13*5 kg. per 
cm. 2 (192 lb. per sq. in.), and required from 25 to 30 minutes to 
get up steam. 

The Coulthard boiler, as employed on Coultliard and Co.’s lurry, is 
an example of the vertical fire-tube type. It is shown in section by 
Tig. 7. Its straight solid-drawn steel tubes are suitable for firing 
with either coke or coal, and the working pressure is 15‘8 kg. per cm. 2 
(225 lb. per sq. in.); it is stated to be tested to a pressure of 
3L6 kg. per cm. 2 (450 lb. per sq. in.). The heating surface is 7T5 m. 2 
(77 sq. ft.) and the grate area *25 cm. 2 (2‘75 sq. ft.). In the lurry the 
boiler is placed behind the front axle, so as to have more weight upon 
the rear wheels when running light, for increased tractive force, and to 
relieve the front wheels, and a further advantage is that the driver 
can see the ground immediately in front of the vehicle. The two 
safety check valves fitted to the boiler can be examined whilst the 
boiler is under steam. 

Water-tube boilers will now be considered. The patent for the 
Ravel boiler and the tricycle it worked dates back to 1868, and 
is mentioned as a matter of history only. It was heated with 
petroleum, which is still adopted in some of the most modern types. 
A worm pipe, with its coils joined, was placed inside a cylindrical 
jacket, terminated on top by a hemisphere. The burnt gases 


37 


/S 'TEAM BOILERS FOR AUTOMOBILES. 

ascended in the centre of the worm, and descended between it 
and the jacket, passing thence to the funnel. The water fed into 
the lower part of the jacket ascended to the top, and then descended 
to enter the lower part of the worm, flow through, and pass out 
at t le top. The steam collected in a large compartment formed 



« 

Fig. 7.—CoULTHARD BOILER. 

by an annular cylindrical jacket filled with hot gases, where it 
was slightly superheated, though remaining at a low pressure. In 
short, it was a rapid vaporisation boiler, with a sufficient amount 
of water and a large reserve of steam ; it had to have a water gauge 
and other apparatus. 

The Amedee Bollee boiler is merely the Field boiler of the 
fire-engine type. As this type is well known, it will suffice to recall 






























































































































38 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


that the body is formed of an annular cylinder surrounding the 
fire-box and funnel, the inner diameter of the top part around 
the funnel being smaller than the lower part, which corresponds 
with the fire-box, so that there is an annular crown over the latter. 
This crown acts as a support for the tubes, which dip horizontally 
into the fire-box, so as to impede the passage of the gases to the 
funnel and thus increase the surface in contact with these gases. 
Inside these tubes there are other concentric tubes; the water 
descends through the inner tubes and ascends through the spaces 
left between the two sets of tubes as shown in Fig. 8 by the 
arrows—the result being that vaporisation is very rapid. Unfor¬ 
tunately the tubes are liable to become burnt and also to scale. 
To avoid scaling, only the purest of water should be used. The 
boiler of La Nouvelle , the omnibus which ran in 1895 from 
Paris to Bordeaux and back (see p. 558), had an outer diameter of 
70 cm. (2/Jin.), and contained 118 tubes. About 30 minutes was 
needed to get up steam. 

The Scotte boiler, Fig. 9, also belongs to the Field type, but 
it has been much improved, especially by the additions of a 
water-stirring tube, a detartarising heater, a super-heating dryer, 
a blower, a movable grate, and a flue orifice, the advantages of 
which are explained below in connection with the illustration. 
The boiler of the Scotte omnibus and traction engine weighs from 
400 kg. to 500 kg. (from 880 to 1,100 lb.) empty, and carries 
from 50 1. to 60 1. (11 gall, to 13 gall.) of water, the hourly 
consumption, with a grate—which has a heating surface of 0T3 
m. 2 (1*4 sq. ft.) in the small model, and 015 m. 2 (P6 sq. ft.) in 
the large model—is 40 kg. to 45 kg. (88 lb. to 99 lb.) of coke, 
with a production of about 220 kg. (485 lb.) of steam, at a 
pressure of 12 kg. per cm. 2 (200 lb. per sq. in.). It can feed a 
motor from 12 to 16 h.p., and getting up steam takes from 35 
to 40 minutes, but this can be accelerated by employing the 
blower. 

In Fig. 9, the illustration of the Scotte improved Field boiler, 
A is the water-stirring tube connecting the lower part of the 
annular space formed by the two sides of the boiler near the 
feed-hole with the steam dome; it provides a direct path by 
which the relatively cold water flowing into the boiler can reach 
the highest part, thus keeping the temperature of the boiler more 


STEAM BOILERS FOR, AUTOMOBILES. 39 

uniform, and decreasing the inequalities of contraction and con¬ 
sequently the strain on the metal, whilst the flow of water being 
accelerated the heat is better utilised. B is a fire-clay guard 
which protects the joint of tube A from the heat of the fire- 



Fig. 8.—Tube or Bollee Boiler. Fig. 9.—Scotte Improved Field Boiler. 

box, and which makes the smoke lick the hanging tubes more 
thoroughly before reaching the funnel. C is the feed-water inlet 
to the detartarising heater D, which is formed of brass tubes 
united by the head plates E and F. G is the admission for the 
motor exhaust steam around the tubes, this steam heating the 
















































































































































40 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


feed-water and passing to the funnel through pipe H. On this 
the tube J is branched, and when a cock is opened it conveys' 
part of the steam under the grate to accelerate the draught. 
The water, which should be purified if it shows more than 20 
by the hydrometer, loses some of its earthy contents in the de- 
tartarising heater and there acquires a temperature which may 
be as high as boiling point, 100° C.; thence it enters the boiler 
through pipe K. The steam thus produced, already heated by tube 
L, runs through tube M into box N, which the regulator worked 
by lever P can place in communication with the coil 0, heated 
by the gases from the fire-box ; there the steam dries, and is super¬ 
heated before passing to the motor. Part of it can be drawn off 
by the blast cock Q and conveyed into the funnel to further 
increase the draught. The grate, which is circular, can by aid of 
the lever f be made to move with an alternating rotary motion 
around its vertical axis. It is lower down than represented at the 
top part of the ash-box in Fig. D, and for firing can be brought 
near the ash-box bottom, which is occupied by water condensed 
from part of the exhaust steam in the heater 13, and brought by 
the pipe L. This liquid cools the bars of the grate by vaporising 
under the influence of the hot cinders which drop out. The 
sparks rising in the funnel are stopped by the guard X, which 
prevents them from getting outside, and they then fall back on 
to the inclined plane U, and reach the ash-box through pipe V. 

The Thirion and Durenne boilers, especially the former, are 
very similar to the Field boiler adapted to fire-engines, to the 
Westinghouse horizontal tube boilers, and to the Rowan, with tubes 
slightly inclined for the traction of locomotives and tramcars 
Ihus it appears they might be adapted easily to cars. 

The de Dion-Bouton boiler, Fig. 10, is a novel and very ingenious 
type, specially invented for automobile work. It consists of two con¬ 
centric shells of annular section, connected by small diameter steel 
tubes, a, slightly inclined upwards from the outside shell. The length 
of these tubes does not exceed twenty times their diameter, so* as 
to avoid the formation of pockets of steam, which are dreaded in 
many multitubular boilers. The two shells are about the same 
length, though their bases are not at the same level. The larger 
forms the outer jacket of the fire-box, the central tube, b, is a 
fuel-box, filled with coke through the top, c , opening with a lid. 




41 


STEAM BOILERS FOR AUTOMOBILES. 

This method of charging with relatively large quantities makes it 
possible to leave the fire-box for a very long time without new 
supplies. The gases of combustion rise through the spaces between 
the small tubes, a, and as these spaces are small and tortuous, owing 
to the baffle arrangement of the tubes, the gases are so deprived 
of their heat that when they reach the smoke-box at the top of 
the boiler their temperature is not more than 250° to 300° C. From 



Fig. 10 .—De Dion-Bouton Boiler. 


the smoke-box they escape by the funnel, cl, generally bent so as 
to discharge at the back ot the car. As the gas emitted may make 
it difficult to inspect the car, and, in particular, to repair the motor 
during stoppages, the funnel has its outlet on the roof, when the 
car has such an addition, as in the case of an omnibus. The 
water is conveyed to the boiler by means of a pump or Giffard 
injector, and is maintained at a level situated below the diaphragm 
f> which is itself below the two top rows of tubes, so as to cut 
off communication between the higher and lower parts of the inner 
cylindrical body. The w r ater fills the tubes, and consequently is 
divided into small volumes licked all over by the flame and gases 









































































42 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


of combustion, the water being heated rapidly. This has a double 
advantage :—(1) Each tube is thus traversed from the outer to 
the inner cylinder by an intense current, whose force is an obstacle 
to the formation of boiler-scale. (2) The vaporising power of the boiler 
is very great. The rapidly-formed steam contains a certain amount 
of Avater which can be got rid of with advantage. The steam dries 
in passing through the two higher rows of tubes, which, as stated 
above, terminate above the diaphragm and the pipes in the smoke- 
box. Sometimes, as in the boiler, Fig. 10, employed for the de Dion- 
Bouton omnibus and traction engine at the Versailles Poids Lourds 
match of 1897, a steel wire, e, is inserted between these pipes and the 
steam valve which surrounds the fire-box; in this worm the steam 
dries, and even becomes superheated. The worm, g, shown below 
the preceding, is to superheat the exhaust steam; in this way this 
steam, which is again re-heated through mixing with the hot gases 
of combustion found in the funnel, is almost invisible when it 
escapes into the air. Of course, the boiler is provided with a safety- 
valve, a steam-gauge, a water-gauge, gauge and blow-off cocks. 
There are two doors to admit of the fire-box being cleared out and 
the ash-box emptied. The de Dion-Bouton boilers can be made for 
a power of from 2*5 h.p. to several hundred horse power. For 
automobiles the power varies from 5 h.p. to 35 h.p., and the boilers 
are registered at 18 kg. per cm. 2 (256 lb. per sq. in.) for a normal pres¬ 
sure of 14 kg. per cm. 2 (200 lb. per sq. in.); in this case they are 
hardly 1 m. (39 3 in.) high by 07 m. (27-5 in.) in diameter. The 
boiler of the de Dion-Bouton omnibus, with 16 seats (25 h.p. motor), 
and that of the traction engine La Pauline, with 40 seats (35 h.p. 
motor), at Versailles in 1897, was as follows :— 


Grate surface . 

Number of tubes 

Heating surface. 

Superheaters’ surface 

Weight, empty . 

Weight of water ... 

Weight of coke . 

Weight in running order 
Water vaporised (pressure 


14 


kg. per cm 


(200 lb. per sq. in.) per kg. (2*2 lb.) of coke 

Ditto, per hour. 

Time required to get up steam . 


04 8 m. 2 or 2 sq. ft. 
500 

5‘60 m. 2 or 60 sq. ft. 
0*50 m. 2 or 5-4 sq. ft. 
400 kg. or 880 lb. 

60 kg. or 132 lb. 

20 kg. or 44 lb. 

480 kg. or 1,060 lbs. 

6 1. or 10-6 pt.) 

350 1. or 77 gal. 

30 minutes. 










43 


STEAM BOILERS FOR AUTOMOBILES. 

I lie omnibus with 20 seats, which ran at Versailles in 1898, weighed 

540 kg. (1,190 lb.) in running order. To sum up, this boiler, very 

small m volume and weight, has great vaporising power and 
elasticity. 

The Weidknecht multitubular boiler, Figs. 11-14, is made entirely 




0= 




oo oo 
oo oo 
oo oo 

- 51 


oo oo 




V 


Fi g- 11- Fig. 12. 

Fig-s. 11 and 12. —Weidknecht Boiler: Vertical Sections. Fig. 13. —Horizontal 

Section. Fig. 14. —Plan. 


of steel, with internal fire-box charged automatically, and furnished 
with a super-heater. The grate is in two parts, the back being fixed 
and the front movable by means of a set of rocking levers which, 
when lowered, allow the fire to be partially thrown out so as to clean 
the fire-box without need of completely emptying it. The whole is 
inclined, and the fuel reaches the fire-box from a charging hopper 
placed in front of the boiler. Vertical tubes connect the crown of the 














































































































































44 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


fire-box with the base of the funnel, the better to utilise the fuel. 
The water tubes are slightly inclined horizontally to aid the release 
of the steam, and terminate at each end in end plates which facilitate 
cleaning and replacement. Feeding is accomplished by a Sellers 
suction injector and an automatic pump, the delivery of which can 
be regulated by adjusting a valve in the return water pipe, which is 
branched on the feed pipe. The boiler of Weidknecht’s 16-seat 
omnibus, constructed to carry 500 kg. (1,100 lb.) of luggage, has a 
grate surface of 27 dm. 2 (3 sq. ft.), a heating surface of 6 m. 2 (64'6 sq. ft.), 
87 tubes of 33 mm. (13 in.) outer diameter, it gives 260 kg. (573 lb.) 
of steam per hour at an average pressure of 12 kg. per cm. 2 (170 lb. 
per sq. in.), and is registered for 15 kg. per cm. 3 (213 lb. per sq. in.). 

The Negre boiler, a type for heavy cars, is shown diagrammatically 
by Fig. 15, where F is the fire-box and B the cylindrical body, the 
steam and water being between the two. To light the coke fire the 
damper R, is opened, to be closed again when the fire is well alight; 
the burnt gases cannot pass to the chimney except by the winding 
path marked by arrows in Fig. 15. The feed water follows the oppo¬ 
site direction, entering a worm, s, s, which carries it into the top of 
the boiler B. It gradually absorbs the heat given up by the gases 
of combustion, and completes its vaporisation on entering the tubes, 
heated directly by the fire. This boiler gave 65 kg. (143 lb.) of steam 
at a pressure of 14 kg. per cm. 2 (200 lb. per sq. in.) per kg. (2-2 lb. of 
coke ; the ordinary type vaporises as much as 286 kg. (616 lb.) of 
water per hour. 

The Musker boiler is stated to contain about 82*3 m. (270 ft.) 
of solid-drawn weldless steel piping, 15 9 mm. (f in.) bore, made into 
three concentric coils; the two centre coils are made with the rings 
slightly apart for the flame or heat to pass through, whilst the outer has 
the rings coiled closely together to prevent the heat escaping except at 
the end, and the outside is lagged with asbestos sheets and sheet iron. 
The ends of the two inner coils are stopped with asbestos, and the 
heat passes from the burner, which is attached to the outer coil, 
between and around the rings of the two inner coils, along between 
the outer and middle coils, and out at the end farthest away from 
the burner. The coils are joined together by steel unions at the back 
of the boiler. Water is pumped into the outer coil at the back 
farthest from the burner, and in its passage through the whole length 
is turned into saturated steam, and finally before leaving into super- 



STEAM BOILERS FOR AUTOMOBILES . 45 

heated steam. It is said that there is no deposit or scale inside the 
tubes, because the rapid rush of steam has a scouring action, and 
because the rings of the coils are always altering slightly in form owing 
to the changes of pressure and temperature. The exhaust steam 
from the motor is passed into the Hue at the back of the boiler 
is superheated by the waste heat, and the gases and the steam pass’ 
invisibly to the atmosphere, the flue outlet being near the ground 



The oil burner for heating the Musker boiler is of cast-iron. A 
fan forces air at a pressure of 25 mm. (1 in.) of water through the heat¬ 
ing chamber, which is heated by the flame, and then through a port 
into the oil-vaporising chamber, into which oil is pumped through 
a pipe of 4'8 mm. ( T 3 F in.) bore. The heated air takes up the 
vaporised oil, and mixture is perfected by passing it backwards and 
forwards around the burner; finally it passes through the centre to 
the nozzle, which consists of a cast-iron disc 5 cm. (2 in.) thick, 






































































46 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


having in it about 120 holes each of 9*5 mm. (| in.) diameter, at the 
back being a 6*3 mm. in.) plate also perforated, which fastens a 
disc of gauze wire over the holes to prevent back-firing. Through 
the centre of the burner is fitted a wrought-iron pipe 38 mm. (H in.) 
in diameter, to allow a lighted taper to be placed in front of the 
nozzle from the outside of the burner at starting. A grid in front 
of the nozzle steadies the flame and deflects some of the heat to 
the walls of the heating chamber. There is no smell with this 
burner, and it can be made quite noiseless. The consumption 
of fuel (any kind of refined or crude oil) is 976 kg. per m. 3 (200 lb. 
per sq. ft.) of nozzle or grate area. 

The Turgan boiler consists of a horizontal cylinder forming 
the top edge of a triangular prism, the sides being formed by the 
inclined water-tubes, and the base by the horizontal grate. Each 
tube is double, as shown by Fig. 8, p. 39, and the outer tube 
opens at its top end into the cylinder, and at the base is closed 
by a screw plug outside the fire. The inner tube opens at both 
ends, the top into a collector inside the cylinder, and the bottom 
near the base of the outer tube. The boiler is fed entirely from 
the higher collector, the water descending through the inner tubes, 
and rising through the annular space between them and the outer 
tubes. The flames and hot gases are directed by guards, which 
form wide tubes, touching each other. A boiler with heating 
surface of 15 5 m. 3 (167 sq. ft.), and grate surface of 0‘6 m. 3 (6*5 sq. 
ft.), weighs 900 kg. (1,980 lb.), is 0*85 m. (33*5 in.) long, and 1*2 m. 
(47*2 in.) wide, dome included. According to the inventor, the 
efficiency Avith forced draught exceeds 7-5 kg. (16*5 lb.) of steam 
per kg. (2'2 lb.) of coke; a good fire in the boiler produces 750 kg. 
(1,650 lb.) of steam per hour, and the production may attain 1,000 
kg. (2,200 lb.) with very strongly forced draught. 

This boiler is to be employed by Turgan and Foy for a steering¬ 
driving forecarriage (p. 424). 

The Thornycroft new boiler, as employed at the Liverpool Self- 
propelled Traffic Association’s trials in June, 1901, is shown by Fig. 16. 

It is constructed wholly of steel, and is of the Thornycroft patent 
central-fired, steam-wagon type, having straight water-tubes arranged 
circularly around the fire. The total heating surface is 12-26 m. 2 
(132 sq. ft.), and the grate area is 0‘39 m. 2 (4’25 sq. ft), and the 
working pressure is up to 15’8 kg.‘ per cm. 2 (225 lb. per sq. in.). 


47 


STEAM BOILERS FOR AUTOMOBILES. 

Coke or coal is used as the fuel, which is introduced through the 
central tiring-hole of the top vessel; regulation is obtained by a 
hinged dooi in the ashpan and by the firing-hole cover. Plugs and 
blow-off cock are fitted from the bottom of the boiler for cleaning out, 
and the fire can be clinkered through a special and easily accessible 
hole on the left-hand side. The top of the boiler can be removed for 
cleaning the insides of the tubes, whose outsides are cleaned by a 
steam jet, the side casing being taken down for the purpose. On the 
right-hand side ot the boiler is a throttle valve having a long 
spindle operated by a hand wheel. One of the two safety valves lifts 
if the normal working pressure is exceeded ; and the other, set at about 
07 kg. per cm.- (10 lb. per sq. in.) above normal pressure, rises in the 
event of the first failing to act. When the vehicle is in motion the 
boiler is fed by a pump driven directly by the engine, and when 
stationary the engine may be disconnected from the transmission 
gear and run free, thus feeding the boiler; or the feed water may be 
supplied by an injector of special pattern mounted on the boiler 
itself. The injector is so designed that the cones may be removed for 
examination while the boiler is under steam. Fuel is economised by 
heating the feed water by the exhaust steam. 

The Lifu boiler was used by the Liquid Fuel Engineering Company, 
Cowes, Isle of Wight. The tubes, grafted on a lower horizontal 
ring, rise vertically and then bend slightly, still remaining nearly 
as a vertical cylinder, and finally the tops enter the bottom of a 
cylinder concentric with the lower ring, but above it, and smaller 
in diameter, thus forming a steam chest. If the tubes shown in 
Fig. 19 were wound spirally on a cylinder without the top hori¬ 
zontal boiler, that illustration would fairly well represent a Lifu 
boiler. The joints are made with check nuts, which facilitate 
replacement or temporary plugging of a burst pipe. The boiler 
is heated by using ordinary petroleum in a special burner, shown 
by Figs. 17 and 18, which two figures are self-explanatory. 
The delivery of petroleum is regulated automatically by steam 
pressure. The iron receptacle seen over the burner is filled with 
materials Avhich can retain heat for a long time, and these re-light 
the burner when extinguished by the wind or any water contained 
by the oil. For an engine of 35 indicated h.p., with a normal 
development of 25 h.p., the boiler has a heating surface of about 
7 5 m. 2 (79 sq. ft.). The safety valves are regulated for a pressure 


48 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


of 18 kg. per cm. 2 (256 lb. per sq. in.), and the pipes have been 
tested for double this pressure. 

The Gillett boiler is employed by the Motor Omnibus Syn¬ 
dicate, and an idea of its structure is given by Fig. 19. The 
fuel is coke. The boiler is partly fed with water of condensation 
from the exhaust steam, by aid of an injector and two pumps. 
Normal pressure is 14 kg. per cm. 2 (200 lb. per sq. in.). The makers 
state that steam is got up in 6 minutes, but this is improbable. 

The Freadley boiler has horizontal tubes, and is heated with 



either coke or petroleum, coke being very satisfactory, and the 
boiler is fixed to the frame of the vehicle by springs to prevent jolting. 

The Stanley boiler is heated by automatic petroleum burners, 
which make it possible to dispense with compressed air, needed 
by so many others, and which appear to give a silent flame and 
good combustion. 

Instantaneous vaporisation boilers contain only a minimum 
amount of water, so there is no serious danger of their exploding; 

for this reason, they do not require any safety valves, gauges, and 
such appliances. 

The Serpollet boiler is the best known amongst these boilers, and 
is the one which for some years has been used for traction of some 
































































STEAM BOILERS FOR AUTOMOBILES. 49 

sui P fo7a^ make eminently 

iTMtt r-? 

crescent-shaped section . „ rj 



Fig. 19. —Gillet Boiler. 


iese tubes are connected in tension by aid of steel sleeve-nuts. 
Ihe water injected at one end, either by hand, with the starting 
pump, or by the donkey-pump, driven by the motor, leaves the 
other end in the form of superheated steam. In the Serpollet 
omnibus for 14 passengers and luggage which took part in the 
Poids Lourds trials at Versailles in 1898 (see p. 560), the length of 
the circuit was 41 m. (134-5 ft,), of this 30*8 m. (108 ft.) 

E 


was 



















































50 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


exposed to the direct action of the gases of combustion; the 
capacity was only from 6 1. to 8 1. (12*3 to 14 pt.), the heating surface 
was 7*05 m. 2 (76 sq. ft.). The peculiar feature of this boiler is that 
it was heated with heavy oil residue obtained in treating gas tar. 
This oil, contained in a tank suspended under the frame of the 

car, is subjected, by means of an air- 
pump, to a pressure of from 0*25 kg 
to 1*5 kg. per cm. 2 (3*5 lb. to 21 3 lb 
per sq. in.), and this pressure can be 
regulated to increase or decrease the 
delivery of fuel to the burners, which 
are worked on the side of the boiler 
opposite an opening through which 
the dame can be introduced into the 
combustion chamber, made in the 
centre of the tubes. The burnt gases, 
after having passed through the com¬ 
bination of tubes, escape through a 
flue, which branches off' in several 
directions, so as to counteract the effect 
of the wind, which might impede their 
exit. The average hourly production 
is 200 kg. (440 lb.) of steam super¬ 
heated to about 350° C., for a pressure 
of 1 kg. per cm. 2 (14*2 lb. per sq. in.) 
above the oil. This corresponds to a 
consumption of 1 1. (T76 pt.) of fuel 
per 12 8 (22*5 pt.) of vaporised water 
in constant work. Suitable burners 
would give a production of 350 kg. 
(770 lb.) of steam per hour. The 
boiler is stamped for 94 kg. (206*8 lb.), and weighs 1,250 kg. 
(27*50 lb.). Ignition and starting require from 45 to 50 minutes. 
In this boiler, as in the first types heated by coke, the volume 
of heat (constituted in multitubular boilers by the volume of 
water) is formed by the mass of the metal in the tube. In 
a new type, intended for light cars, fed with petroleum, the 
delivery of which is regulated according to the amount of 
water to be vaporised, this bulk of water is almost useless. 



Figs. 20 and 21. —Section and Part 
Plan op Serpollet Boiler. 





































































51 


STEAM BOILERS FOR AUTOMOBILES . 

Consequently it has been possible to considerably decrease the weight 
the boiler, the 5 h.p. type, which weighed 350 kg. (770 lb) now 

r g s g ib onl f though * can 

22 lb.) ot water per kg. (2 , 2 lb 'i of 
(o'f sq’ 2 r lUuStmte this new type o{ boiler, having 0 92 nS 

i e ? h ^ if Lt S nl \ 1 fe6(1 " m ° t0r of 4 h.p. Its 

0 279m nt t /fi m) ; l6n - th 0412 “• (16 ia), width 
compact for ,h. power it i, capable of ,1 Lp. t 



rectangular, and there is a double-sided sheet-iron shell, the space 
within which is packed with asbestos; the movable bottom has 
three burners, only one of which is shown in the illustration, - 
and there is a door to inspect them. I (Figs. 20 and 21) is an 
asbestos-lined iron shield to prevent radiation and cooling of 
the tube joints ; the cap on top has an opening through which the 
gases of combustion pass to the funnel. The injected water enters 
the two-coil worm with round tubes c (Fig. 20) around the 
combustion chamber, the sides of which are thus protected against 
the full action of the flames. It then runs into the series of 
twisted tubes, the four rows ol which are in tiers over the burners. 
Finally it enters the round tubes at the top part and again falls 
to the row situated above the twisted tubes, from which it makes 





































































52 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


an exit. The inventor defines the purpose of these three elements 
of the boiler by saying that the water is heated in the worm 
below, vaporised and dried in the twisted tubes, and superheated 
in the round tubes. The mechanism employed for feeding, with 
both petroleum and water, is shown by Fig. 22. Pumps A and B, 
feeding water and petroleum respectively, have plunger pistons 
worked by short connecting rods jointed to the lever C, which 
itself is hinged on the left to a rigid bar ; the distances of the 
joints on the one hand and of the area of the piston on the other 
are so calculated that the amount of petroleum pumped by B is 
exactly that required to vaporise and superheat the water supplied 
by A. To provide for any irregularity, always to be feared with 
a variation of temperature and in the quality of the petroleum, 
by means of the screw D acting on the slide L the latter may 
be moved along lever C, so as to modify the previously fixed pro¬ 
portions of water and petroleum. Once regulated it is also 
necessary to be able to vary these quantities with the work 
developed by the motor to meet the exigencies of the road profile 
to be travelled over and rates of speed to be attained. For this 
purpose the connecting rod F, from which the lever C derives 
motion, has one end governed by the slide L, which can move 
between the two cheeks of the balance beam M. This balance 
beam oscillates around a pivot fixed in its centre, and receives 
motion from an eccentric keyed on a turning part of the 
mechanism. Now if the amplitude of its oscillations is constant, 
the rod P enables the driver to vary the position of the slide L, 
and also the point by which the balance beam comes into contact 
with the connecting rod F, and consequently the stroke of the 
connecting rods and pumps. Finally, as the petroleum is in a 
tank at a somewhat higher level than that of the burners (or is 
subject to a small air pressure), it rises slightly during stoppage 
of the car, the feed pump having ceased its action, and reaches the 
burners in a sufficient quantity to keep them burning like pilot 
lights. Thus the boiler is always ready for work and the car to 
start without any fear of burning, to which the tubes were but too 
liable when in the primitive system they were left under the 
influence of the incandescent coke without being cooled by a 
continuous current of water. Thus improved, the Serpollet boiler 
is admirably suited for automobile use. 


S J EAM BOILERS FOR AUTOMOBILES. 


53 



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SERPOLLET STEAM BOILER. 

































































































































































































































































































































































54 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


L. Serpollet patented in September, 1899, a method of quickly 
getting up steam and maintaining a rapid generation of steam in 
boilers, whilst enabling the heating action of the petroleum or other 
liquid fuel burners to be increased as required without causing them 
to smoke and become choked up. The following particulars are 
adapted from the patent specification, as are also the illustrations, 
Figs. 23 to 25, the blocks for the latter being kindly lent by the 
Automotor Journal. 

On the shaft A is keyed a stepped cam B. C is a narrow roller 
revolving round an axle O, attached to the pump lever D , which is 
oscillated about a pivot, O 1 , at one end, whilst its other end is pulled 
by a spring R, which opposes the cam. The roller C, when on any 
one of the steps of the cam B, does not experience any lateral action 
whatever. A water, pump a, a petroleum pump b, and another 
small water pump c are connected with the lever D by means of 
links. Another water pump d can be operated by hand by means of 
a lever E when the engine supplied by the boiler is at rest and it is 
desired to start it. The tank H supplies water through pipes /, g, i, to 
the pumps a , c, d. The reservoir I supplies petroleum, through the 
pipe j, to the pump b, which, by means of the discharge pipe h feeds 
the burner J, which is provided with Bunsen nozzles, whilst the water 
pumps a and c deliver, through the delivery pipes l, m, respectively, 
to the bottom of the bundle of boiler tubes and to an upper and 
serpentine pipe n which constitutes a superheater in the upper part 
of the generator. The pipe n absorbs heat from the exhaust gases 
and generates steam, which is very hot and at high pressure. This 
steam escapes in a jet or jets into a conduit K, leading to the 
chimney, and produces around the nozzle or nozzles of the burner J 
the increased flow of air necessary for the combustion of the increased 
supply of petroleum to the burner. When the engine supplied by the 
generator is stopped, in order to prevent the pressure of the water in 
the generator from being greater than desired, on the steam pipe T, is 
a branch t, by means of which the issuing steam presses upon the 
surface of some oil contained in a receptacle L, which communicates 
as shown, through a pipe t\ with the lower part of a cylinder M, in 
which moves a piston q, which is immersed in the oil and is pressed 
down by a spring r, whose rod passes through a stuffing box and 
can lift the rod of a balanced valve S, and consequently lifts the 
valve itself, although the valve S is loaded both by a spring, r l , and 


i 


55 


STEAM BOILERS FOR AUTOMOBILES. 

by the pressure of the water forced into the pipe l, and the branch 
pipe l. W hen the pressure of the steam leaving the boiler is m-eat 
enough to lift the loaded piston q sufficiently, by the intermediary of 
the od in the receptacle L the valve S is also lifted, and the excess 
of water, forced into the pipe l, passes the valve S, and makes its way 
through a pipe t\ into the tank H. The pump c is to deliver the 



Fig. 26 .—Longuemare Berner for Boilers. 


water above the steam pipe T, in order that it may be transformed 
into steam, which is injected into the chimney at a suitable point. 
This pump consequently enables the proportionate working of the 
pumps a and b to be effective. 

The Longuemare burner for petroleum (Fig. 26) is used on 
Serpollet vehicles, and is of exceptional power. The oil enters by the 
vertical tube A, shown on the left-hand side of Fig. 26, and becomes 
vaporised during its passage through the steel worms B, on arriving 
at the top of which the vapour is conducted by the pipe C to the 






























































































56 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


base where is situated a central screw valve regulated by the handle 
D, to control the supply. There are seven burner tips E, as illustrated 
in plan in the type here dealt with, but smaller burners have only one 
or some number less than seven, Fig. 26 illustrating the most powerful 
Longuemare burner made (No. 4), its maximum consumption of oil 
being between 6 1. and 8 1. (10'5 to 14 pts.) per hour. The supply to 
each burner tip can be regulated to a nicety, and when the vehicle is 
proceeding at half-speed only three burner tips need be kept alight, 
and there is efficient mechanism for cutting out the four others. 
The present burner is a development of much simpler and less 
powerful devices. No. 1 burner consumes about 2 1. (3*5 pts.) of 



oil per hour; No. 2, 4 1. (7 pts.) per hour; No. 3, from 4 1. to 5 1. 
(7 to 8-8 pts.) per hour; one litre (1*76 pt.) giving the 1 h.p. hour. 

The Clarkson and Capel liquid fuel burner (Fig. 27), employed 
on the heavy steam vehicles made by that firm, is of the true 
Bunsen type, and consists essentially of a vaporiser, a regulated 
jet, an inducing tube, a mixing chamber, and a regulated orifice at 
which the vapour issues and is burnt. The vaporiser is a spirally 
coiled steel tube through which oil passes on its way to the jet; 
to prevent overheating, the coil is not in contact with the flame. 
The force of the vapour issuing from the jet induces with it a 
supply of air, the two becoming thoroughly mixed in the mixing 
chamber, B B. A special regulating device for the air is not re¬ 
quired, but the damper A is provided at the end of the inducing 
tube for use with forced draught and in starting the burner. A 
perforated nickel cone, shown, surrounds the orifice at which the flame 


































57 


STEAM BOILERS FOR AUTOMOBILES. 

issues, its object being to improve combustion and act as a 
rachator and igniter in case of the burner being blown out. 

on • 10 f"! i P‘!° n and Bodman flash boiler is illustrated by Figs 28 to 
30 m which A is the casing, B the firebrick lining, C the fire bars, D 

he fire doors, E the boiler tubes, F the steel drum; the coupling 
t and the coupling U-tube are shown on the right of Fio\ 29. 
There is an inner and outer funnel and a back pressure valve L 
is the steam outlet. The boiler has six single bent tubes’ or 
weve elements joined up in series and placed on a suitable 
casing. The boiler is started by a hand-worked pump, and is fed 



Fig. 28. 


Figs. 28 to 30 .—Simpson and Bodman Boiler. 


by a pump driven by a cam on the road wheel. An essential 
adjunct is the weldless steel cylinder shown in Fig. 29, which modifies 
the otherwise excessive amount of super-heat possessed by the steam 
as generated. The working steam pressure is from 7 kg. to 15-8 kg 
pei cm. 2 (100 lb. to 250 lb. per sq. in.), that is, its temperature 
ranges from 171° to 190° C. (840° to 390° F.), but the temperature 
of tubes usually is from 371° to 5377° C. (600° to 1,000° F.), and 
consequently there is a considerable amount of superheat. The 
steam as generated is led into the steel drum, and in this is a bent 
tube or U-tube (see Fig. 29) through which passes the feed water, either 
direct from the feed pumps or after it has passed through one or two 
rows of tubes directly below the flue to cool the gases. The boiler now 
being very hot and ready for work, water is pumped by hand through 
the top rows of the tube, and probably passes through the U-tube in 







































































































































































58 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


the drum as steam, thence to the bottom and highest row of tubes; 
it issues from the middle row as highly superheated steam to collect 
in the body of the drum, where it comes in contact with the U-tube 
and imparts some of its excessive heat to the contents of the latter. 
The weight of the generator is 292*5 kg. (645 lb.), and that of the 
steel cylinder 44-45 kg. (98 lb.), total 337 kg. (743 lb.). 

The Blaxton flash boiler (Fig. 31) presents some novel and 
interesting features. It consists of a number of super-imposed coils 
of steel tubing bore, 25 mm. (1 in.), each coil forming a separate 
element, and having about '9 m. 2 (10 sq. ft.) of heating surface The 
coils are joined up in series, with nuts and unions placed outside the 
case and away from the heat. The principal feature is the means for 
adjusting the supply of liquid fuel in the same ratio as the steam 
consumption. The oil is forced under air pressure through a heating 
coil, where it is vaporised, and thence to the burner, which has a 
perforated cap capable of slight vertical motion; to the cap is 
attached the spindle or stem of the needle-valve. Rigidly fixed in 
the vertical axis of the boiler is a large tube, closed at its lower end, 
which just touches, or nearly touches, the burner cap. At the top 
the tube is connected to one of the elements, and within the tube is 
another open at its lower end, and also connected to an element, thus 
providing a path for the continuous circulation of the steam or water. 
The action is as follows : On lighting the burner the temperature 
of the elements is raised sufficiently to vaporise the feed water, and if 
there is a constant supply of cold water the central tube remains at 
a certain temperature, and consequently its length (dependent on 
expansion and contraction) allows the needle-valve in the burner to 
pass sufficient oil gas necessary to vaporise the water. Diminishing 
the feed causes the central tube to get hotter, and its lower end 
presses upon the top of the needle-valve spindle, and the supply of 
oil gas is lessened. The boiler illustrated is 175 m. x -91 m. x *91 m. 
(5 ft. 9 in. x 3 ft. x 3 ft.); it has 11-7 m. 2 (126 sq. ft.) of heating 
surface, the normal steam pressure is 14 kg. per cm. 2 (200 lb. per 
sq. in.), it will supply a 25 h.-p. motor, and its weight, including 
casing and fittings, is about 700 kg. (14 cwt.) In Fig. 31, A shows 
the boiler, B the burner, C the steam valve, D the water pump, E the 
suction valve, H the air-vessel, J the water supply pipe, and Iv the oil 
supply pipe. The oil pump is of the same design as the water pump 
illustrated. 


59 


STEAM BOILERS FOR AUTOMOBILES. 

After having employed a boiler slightly modified from Serpollet’s 
first type, Le Blant patented in 1896 a non-explosive boiler with 
variable pressure, in which the steel tubes, longer than those in 
the Serpollet boiler, have an undefonnable annular section and a 




__ 7W 

'jk 

F 


— 


j 







c 

D 

r e 




Fig-. 31 .—Blaxtox Boileii. 


uniform interior diameter, though the exterior diameter is larger 
according as the tubes are nearer the fire-box. A boiler with a 
heating surface of 15 m. 2 (161‘5 sq. ft.), registered at 100 kg. (220 lb.), 
weighs 2,000 kg. (4,400 lb.) empty, feeds a motor of 20 to 30 li.p., 
and can, with a hot-water tank which accumulates steam during 
descents and ascents, give 60 li.p. on an emergency. 









































































































































60 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


The type of Negre boiler (Fig. 32) used for light cars may have a 
powerful Longuemare burner, consuming about 1 1. (T76 pt.) of petro¬ 
leum to vaporise sufficient water to produce one horse-power hour, or 
it may be fired with alcohol, coke, or coal. The feed water enters from 
below, and is heated in a bundle of tubes, all of which communicate 
with an annular chamber; these tubes have a bore of 6 mm. (-236 in.) 
and an outside diameter of 12 mm, (*472 in.), and they number 204. 

Vaporisation begins instantly 
the burner or fire is lit. Each 
tube is connected to a collector 
above by a very small passage, 
which obliges the water to 
separate from the steam, the 
circulation being very slow. 
The dry steam passes to a 
second collector below the 
first, connection from one to 
the other being assured by 
U-shaped tubes, as shown in 
Fig. 32. The steam passes 
through a hollow bolt, which 
at the same time serves to 
hold the joint. Thus the 
steam becomes superheated 
and, though under a low 
pressure, still is very dry. 
Valentin boilers are so 
Fig. 32. —Negre Boiler for Light Vehicles. na Bied from their designer, 

manager of the workshops of 
the Compagnie Generale des Automobiles, who also runs the 
water to be vaporised into the very small annular space between 
two concentric iron tubes, but the flames reach the inside of the 
small tube as well as the outside of the large, thus increasing 
the heating surface. Water is injected by a pump. There is 
no needle valve, as in the primitive Serpollet type. The fuel 
employed for heating is coke, which slides automatically on an 
inclined grate, and the draught is obtained by a very short flue, 
the fire-box being in front, and the motion"of the car gives a 
sufficient draught. The exhaust steam is not injected ; instead it 























































































































































STEAM BOILERS FOR AUTOMOBILES. 61 

IS co “ densed b y running it through a system of tubes with gills 
cithern 6 ^ ° f being CaSt ° n with the tubes > are forced 

The principle of the Montier and Gillet boiler is similar to that 
of the preceding. The flames ascend between the horizontal tubes, 
then descend along the ends of these tubes opposite the flue and 
cross them horizontally to reach this flue. The steam formed 

passes into collectors, where it is dried, as is necessary after such 
rapid vaporisation. 

In the Kecheur boiler each part is formed, first by a vertical 
steel tube, and inside that a thicker steel tube fits exactly; the 
inner tube has, on the part near the outer tube, a helicoidal 
square groove, 15 min. (0-59 in.) in section. It is heated by a 
Longuemare petrol spirit burner similar to that employed for heating 
the incandescent ignition tubes of petrol motors. The flame 
from the burner enters into the flue formed by the interior tube, 
and there causes a draught and very active combustion. The 
parts are united together by horizontal sleeves, with joints well 
secured by a double screw-thread running in opposite directions, 
so that the water. and steam pass along the complete circuit. 
Feeding is accomplished by an automatic pump, whose delivery 
can be regulated with a lever so as to vary the speed of the 
car, there being no mechanical change of speed. The water injected 
is obtained largely from exhaust steam condensed in an appliance 
in which use is made of the absorbing power of wire gauze The 
Toward and Philipson, and Tangye and Johnson boilers may be 
mentioned by way of note. 

Such are the most commonly employed boilers for automobiles. 
Ignoring the fire-tube boilers, which are but little used and only 
on heavy vehicles such as the Leyland and Coulthard, it is 
found that water-tube boilers are suitable only for heavy vehicles 
driven by a skilled driver. This is owing to their weight. 
(500 kg., or 1,100 lb.), the amount of water they contain (about 
50 kg., or 110 lb.), a sufficient amount to cause risk of explosion 
(mere bursting of a tube may have serious consequences), but not 
enough to ensure regularity of pressure and level. It is regrettable 
that their tubes have not gills, for it must not be forgotten that 
Baudry demonstrated on the locomotives of the Paris-Lyons-Mediter- 
ranean Bailway that, where gilled tubes vaporise 92 kg. (202 lb.) of 


62 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


water, smooth tubes vaporise only 75 kg. (165 lb.); and the relative 
proportion is the same in the case of automobiles. It may be 
added that boilers with hanging tubes seem to start more rapidly 
than others. Light cars only can have instantaneous vaporisation 
boilers heated by liquid fuel, but these boilers fed with proper 
proportions ol water and petroleum, as in the Serpollet, seem 
capable of doing good service. The burners employed with liquid 
fuel are very variable in form, but are all based on the principle 
of the Bunsen burners; that is, the pressure at which the gas or 
vapour is supplied to the burner causes the drawing in of most 
of the air requisite for combustion. For automobiles generally 
recourse is had to air under pressure forced by a pump into a 
receptacle containing petroleum. The vapour from the petroleum 
has to be obtained at the outset by small temporary burners 
easily ignited with a little alcohol, and heating the closed vessel 
containing a certain amount of liquid fuel. The live steam, also, 
can be employed to draw in the fuel and air. To the incontestable 
advantages of heating with liquid fuel, usually there is to be added 
that of enabling steam to be got up more rapidly than with coke 
heating, though Forestier regards this advantage as more apparent 
than real. When the temperature of the chief burners has to be 
raised, in the first place, by aid of accessory burners, neither the 
tubular nor instantaneous vaporisation boiler is very economic; it is 
a great deal for them to vaporise 6 kg. (13’2 lb.) of water per kg. 
(2 - 2 lb.) of coke, as in the case of the de Dion-Bouton boiler, 
though, however, the Serpollet boiler vaporises as much as from 9 kg. 
to 10 kg. (19’8 lb. to 22 lb.) per litre (176 pt.) of petroleum. 

Owing to the necessary intense production, the gases of com¬ 
bustion make their exit at a high temperature (about 400° C.), 
and cause the tubes to scale, the difficulty of cleaning being 
another complication. Considering, then, these two points, as also 
those of weight and encumbrance of tubular boilers, some progress 
seems desirable. Apparently, the most successful path is that 
taken by Serpollet. 

Soft steel, having a tensile strength of from 38 kg. to 42 kg. per 
mm. 2 (24 tons to 26’6 tons per sq. in.), is almost exclusively 
employed for the construction of the boilers noted in this chapter. 






63 


CHAPTER IV. 

STEAM MOTORS FOR AUTOMOBILES. 

The steam engine or, in automobile language, the steam motor 

is naturally suitable for automobile service; and the opposite to 

what was the case with the steam boiler, it was not necessary to 
alter it much to adapt it to its new application. Already possess- 
mg the essentials of an automobile motor—simplicity, reliability 
elasticity, and, apart from the boiler, lightness—it was adopted 
just as it was, and, it may almost be said, under all the various 
ouns the steam engine is capable of assuming. For though, as 
yet practical results have been given only by the alternating type 
witi fixed cylinders and single or double expansion, both the 
oscillating and rotary types have been tested for automobile service. 
Consequently, in the review about to be given of the various 

applications, the methodic order of a regular classification of steam 
motors can be followed. 

Simple expansion alternating motors, with oscillating cylinders, 
will be considered first. The Ravel motor, employed for the 
tricycle of 1868, bad two oscillating cylinders working at about 
100 revolutions per minute, so that the cranks could be coupled 
directly with the driving axle, because at this rate the engine was 
considered to be able to withstand the effect of the jolts caused 
by the road. This system was not imitated, probably because it was 
too destructive to the mechanism, in spite of the elastic working 
of the motor, a tangible proof of which is given by the railway 
locomotive, and the fear of jolts on the road caused the speed rate 
to be kept too low. This is to be regretted, because, dispensing with 
toothed or other transmission gear with several speeds, this device 
gave a simplicity not to be found in others. Moreover, if instead 
of a two-cylinder motor, driving the same axle, two independent 
cylinder motors are employed, each driving a wheel, there is no 
necessity for that always complicated part, the differential. Some 
day, perhaps, an ingenious invention, for example, that of a spring 


64 


TEE AUTOMOBILE. 


capable of sufficiently deadening the jolt caused by the road, may 
enable the above system to be returned to. 

The Amt dee Bollee motor is an example of the simple expansion 
alternating motors with two fixed cylinders inclined at 45°. This 
motor has a balanced rotary distributor, allowing expansion and 
reversing. With the boiler described on p. 38, two cylinders, 015 
m. (5 9 in.) in diameter and 0T6 m. (6'3 in) stroke, give an average 
of 15 horse-power, which can be increased to 30. The Serpollet 
(fiist type), Le Blant, Scotte, and Weidknecht motors are of practi¬ 
cally the same type as the above, except that they have two parallel 
cylinders. 

The Le Blant motor has two parallel cylinders, each 170 mm 
(6 7 in.) diameter and 180 mm. (7 in.) stroke, and the admission 
of steam is governed by cylindrical balanced slide valves variable 
from 10 per cent, to SO per cent, by a Walschaert’s valve gear, 
which has the advantage of not employing an eccentric and of 
working in all notches of expansion without altering the lead of 
the slide valves, whereas the Stephenson link motion decreases 
the lead and admission near the dead centre. This motor, weighing 
450 kg. (990 lb.), gives an average of from 15 h.p. to 2o"h.p" 
and can attain 30 h.p., and generally rotates at a speed of from 
ISO to 200 revolutions per minute. The motor of 20 to 30 h p 
capable of giving 60 h.p. exceptionally, has two cylinders of 

200 mm. (7-8 in.) diameter and 220 mm. (8-65 in.) stroke and 
weighs 900 kg. (1,980 lb.). 

Scotte employs the steam-hammer type of engine, with two double¬ 
acting vertical cylinders. The omnibus which figured at the heavy 
vehicle competition at Versailles in 1897 had a motor of 14 h.p 
cylinders 110 mm. (4 3 in.) in diameter, and 115 mm. (4-5 in) stroke' 
The valve and reversing gears consisted of the ordinary eccentrics 
ant Stephenson’s link motion, and admission could be prolonged 

f °f 7 °, P E C6n \ ° f . the stroke; the motor worked normally at the 
rate of 400 revolutions per minute, and weighed 270 kg- (594 lb l 

Weidknecht employed for his omnibus with 15 "seats and 
carrying 500 kg. (1,100 lb.) of luggage, a 20 h.p. motor with cylinders 
-o mm. (4 9 in.) in diameter, and the same stroke, Solrns’ system of 
radial expansion not employing link motion, and giving a variable 
expansion with wide limits (10 per cent, to 83 per cent.). Normally 
the engine worked at 350 revolutions per minute. 


STEAM MOTORS FOR AUTOMOBILES. • g5 

MotoJclXvThT ^ a ' S ° " ad ° Pted by the Lanc ^ire Steam 

aotor Company whose engine is not reversible, by D. Martyn Frealdev 
and Stanley. In the Freakley motor for a car with 30 seats e5 
cylinder is 11 5 cm. (45 in.) in diameter, and 22 cm (87 in ) stroke- 
distribution is by slide valve and Stephenson’s link motion Inte’ 
Stanley motor for car with 2 seats, the pistons are 5 cm (2 in) 
diameter, and 9 cm. (3 5 in.) stroke. ' ( } 

Two cylinders were used oh the first Serpollet motors, and are 

in theTsoH T°7 V Vehi ° l6S ’ aS they Were on the omnibus 

m the 1898 rials at Versailles. The two cylinders are 120 mm (4 7 

m ) W,-1. -11, in.) stroke, and .he i, 

y earns of a flat slide valve worked by the Stephenson link 
mo ion, the sector of which has various notches corresponding to 
admissions of 16, 33, 35, and 75 per cent.; the notch most 
commonly used even on rising gradients exceeding 50 mm. 
(1 m 20) is that of 33 per cent. The average power of this motor 
is lo h.p., at a speed of 415 revolutions per minute. On risino- 
gradients, owing, to the elasticity of production and boiler pressure 
the motor can exceptionally attain 40 h.p. It could not continually 
work with an excessive boiler production without suffering in its 
packings and bearings from the high temperature caused by the 
excessive pressure. The limit of the latter has been fixed' arbi¬ 
trarily at 15 kg. per cm.* (213 lb. per sq. in.). The transmitting 
gears from the motor shaft to the wheels of the vehicle are com¬ 
bined m such a way that when this limit is attained with the first 
speed it is necessary only to engage the second to increase the 
traction strain without any change of pressure ensuing. 

The Serpollet superheated steam motor (Figs. 33 to 38) is designed 
foi use with highly superheated steam, the temperature of which may 
be from 400° C. to. 500° C. (752° to 932° F.), and oil lubricants and 
packings aie dispensed with entirely. The two horizontal cylinders 
aie opposite each other, and are single-acting; they open into a crank 
chamber, through which passes the main shaft; the connecting rods 
are each joined directly to the bottom of the hollow piston. Fig. 33 
is hall side elevation and half longitudinal section of the motor. 
Figs. 34 and 35 are plan and elevation; Fig. 36 is a front elevation : 
Fig. 37, a longitudinal axial section, and Fig. 38 an end vieAv of 
the distributing cam. The two cylinders A A 1 are mounted in line with 
and facing each other on the frame B, having the general form of a 

F 


66 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


cylindrical box. The recessed pistons are long relatively to their 
diameter, and this allows of the connecting rods being jointed directly 
thereto, thus dispensing with the piston rod, its stuffing box, and the 
slides. The heads of the connecting rods are cut away somewhat in 
the form of a crescent so as to be supported in the same plane of 
rotation by a common crank pin C; as they work only in compression 
the cap of the end bearing is superfluous, but, for avoiding any 
possible derangement, two collars D embrace the shoulders of the 
heads of the connecting rods and keep them constantly up against 
the crank pin. Steam enters the cylinders through the outer end of 
each on the opening of the corresponding valve E, which is operated 
mechanically. At the end of its power stroke each piston uncovers 
the orifices F in the wall of the cylinder through which steam exhausts. 
The cylinder, however, remains full of the expanded steam at a 
pressure which may be slightly above that of the atmosphere. This 
steam, being imprisoned on the return stroke of the piston, is com¬ 
pressed up to the end of the stroke without the liability that the 
compression will exceed the pressure in the boiler; but if it should 
exceed it the valve E opens and allows the compressed steam to 
return into the supply pipe, whence it will return afterwards into the 
cylinder at the commencement of the next power stroke. 

The valve type distribution gear is employed, and the mechanism, 
situated on the framing, comprises a small shaft G parallel to the 
engine shaft, and rotated by the latter by means of a pair of toothed 
wheels H H 1 . Shaft G carries a cylindrical cam J adapted to slide 
along a feather, and thus capable of moving longitudinally when it is 
actuated by the nut I, which is provided with a forked tail embracing 
the circular groove formed in the end of the cam. This nut is 
mounted on a screw V parallel to the axis of the cam, and moves 
when the screw V, which is held between two stops, is turned either 
by hand or by a governor. In its rotary movement, by means of one 
of its two projections, the cam J moves successively the rollers L 
mounted on the ends of the sliding rods Iv, the end of which 
serves as a cap or housing for the axle of these rollers. By these 
means the cam raises the admission valves E, which normally are 
pulled by opposing springs K 1 in such a manner that these valves 
have a tendency to remain on their seats owing both to the tension 
of their springs and the steam pressure. For the motor to rotate in 
one direction only, with a constant admission of steam, the cam 


STEAM MOTORS FOR AUTOMOBILES. 67 

would be made of the total width of the two rollers will, „„ • r 
or projection whose length would correspond to a’fixed‘period 1 of 
admission determined upon; but if the motor is to be reversed Ld 
have a variable cut-off, either by hand or by the governor the cam J 
has two projections or inclines S S> arranged symmetrical!v’opposTte to 
■cio, ler m the same plane, and each having somewhat the form of 




H J[ fV-n. 

i v 


Fig. 35. 


p B 


b 

or 

ii i 

_ 

-— y. 




Fig. 36. 


Fig. 34. 



-Pigs. 33 to 38.— Serpollet Two-cylinder Superheated Steam Motor. 


Fig. 37. 


a right-angled triangle. The apex of each of these triangles ends a 
shoit distance from the central plane, which is at right angles to the 
axis of the cam, and it terminates in the cylindrical surface of the 
cam. Thus, two triangles are opposed one to the other at then- 
apices, which are separated by a space equal to the thickness of one 
roller and corresponding to the period or position of stoppage. They 
each have a side situated upon one and the same generating line, and 
developed one to the right and the other to the left (see Fig. 36). 
The consequence is that, according to the position of the cam J upon 
its longitudinal axis and opposite to the rollers L, one on each side of 















































































































































































68 


TEE AUTOMOBILE. 


the cam, the rollers are raised or pushed back during the tangential 
travel of the cam. In order to change the direction of motion it is 
sufficient to move forward the cam J on its axis in such a manner as 
to change the position (relatively to the rollers) of the triangular nose 
or projection of that cam which actuates the rollers. The operation 
of the cam J allows of producing forward running of the motor with 





H 


Q 

/ 




v 

f 

t 




* 

\ 

\° 



) 

i 


Fig. 39. —Vektical Section of Kecheur Steam Motor. Fig. 40.— Section 

of Cylinder. 


any desired admission of steam, of stopping the motor, and of 
producing backward running with any desired degree of admission. 
The above particulars are taken and accompanying illustrations are 
reproduced from the Automotor and Horseless Vehicle Journal. 

With regard to engines having three cylinders at 120° one to 
the other, the Kecheur motor (Figs. 39 and 40) has three double¬ 
acting cylinders radiating round a frame of triangular section A, 
which acts as a’ common steam-chest to them. Distribution is by 
three slide valves governed by a cam C keyed on the motor shaft V. 








































































































/ 


STBAM MOTORS for automobiles. eg 

Q ' cart “ • * 

IS thus compelled to turn Tho H • 1 111 a P 11110n &, which 

■5= rstear -«* 

™;rf le ?■“b«« 

120 to one another (see Fio- s 41 ., n ,i 4 , 9 , T ( / , , n ecl at 

i j 1 K n is effected by Simple mushroom valves with sprino- 

Sr-p- * ~ s * a cam t,™* 0 „ a s 

movino- this *1 lllam ShSft -’ , Up ° n thls sleeve is mother cam. By 
are obtained a Tf “ “ direCtion direct and averse rotation 

valves then being seated. The exhaust is led to a feed 

superheated stf" ^ , As th ereareno glands in the motor. 

VI ves also are ft ° an , be USed Wlth advantage. The admission 
valves also are safety valves, as should water enter the valves simply 

he cas no B T' ™ ref <” in Fi g s - 41 and 42 : A is 

?■1 0 ’ B ’ beann S and wa ter jacket ; C, reversing cover • D 

} mder, E, piston ; F, connecting rod ; G, crank and shaft; H, cam • 

stem Ve M ng i SPmd ^ J ’ r6Versin ^ action i K - cam rod; L, valve and 
. ’ M ’ Steam connections ; N, governor; 0, exhaust; P, driving 

pmion; u attachment to vehicle; and R, spur wheel bearing The 
complete motor, with gear case, etc., as fitted on a 3-ton to 5-ton 
uny, weighs but 100 kg. (2 cwt.), and the power is 81 brake horse¬ 
power at a steam pressure of 7 kg. per cm 2 . (100 lb. per sq. in.), and 
a speed of 500 revolutions per minute. Its running is exceptionally 
s oil y. le Simpson and Bodman lurry has two such motors, one on 
each side, each actuating its own driving wheel, and they have 
not ung in common except the steam and exhaust pipes. 

Of motors with four cylinders, the Negre motor and Serpollet 
motor form types. In the Serpollet four-cylinder motor the cylinders 
are single-acting and parallel; their connecting rods drive the motor 
siaft by two cranks at 92°. Thus this shaft is in the same con¬ 
ditions as though it were governed by two double-acting cylinders. 

le connecting rods of the two opposite pistons have their heads 
each in the form of a half-bearing, and the two connect on the same 
crank pin by collars, which give the heads of the connecting rods 


70 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


the necessary angular play, and they do not sustain any strain 
whilst working. The four horizontal cylinders, cast on two at a time, 
are arranged in pairs on each side of an aluminium case, which 
also supports the box for the distributing cams. Distribution is 
very simply obtained by means of inlet valves and exhaust ports. 
The latter, at the top part of the cylinders, are simply opened by the 



Fig. 41. —Simpson and Bodman Steam Motor : Transverse Section. 


pistons when they reach half their effective stroke. The inlet valves 
situated above the cylinder ends are worked respectively by four cams 
mounted on a shaft rotated from the motor shaft by aid of two 
equal spur wheels. The advantages of this motor are the cylinders 
being single-acting, the journals at the two ends of the connecting- 
rods never lose contact with the crank-pin, and do not undergo 
wedging through reverse motion of the piston. There are no stuffing- 
boxes nor sliding valves to be kept water-tight, lubricated, and pre¬ 
vented from seizing. All the moving parts are enclosed in boxes, 
which thoroughly protect them from air and dust. The motor can 




















































































STEAM MOTORS FOR AUTOMOBILES. 71 

work at a veiy groat speed, and does not occupy very much space 
Compression takes place during about 90 per cent, of the back stroke, 

Wl 10U ’ lowever > e * n g able to exceed the boiler pressure; because 
as soon as a pressure equivalent to the boiler pressure is obtained, 
the valve automatically rises, and the excess of steam leaves the 
cv mder to return to the boiler and thence to the following forward 


G 



Fig. 42. Simpson and Bodman Steam Motor : Longitudinal Section. 


stroke. Consumption or steam is small; a motor of about 4 h.p., 
making 510 revolutions per minute, having two cylinders of 80 mm. 
(4.15 in.) diameter, and the same stroke, does not consume 10 kg. 
(22 lb.) of steam per horse-power hour. It may be added that at 
the V ersailles heavy vehicle competition in 1898, Serpollet ran an 
omnibus with accommodation for 16 passengers and their luggage; 
the 15 h.p. motor of this vehicle was fed by a boiler heated with 
petroleum ; 1 1. (1*76 pt.) of this oil vaporises 13 kg. (28'6 lb.) 
of water, and costs only ljd. ; thus it is most economic for use 
on heavy vehicles, where low cost is an object. Heavy petroleum 
































































































































































THE AUTOMOBILE. 


had already been employed, on a journey from Bastille to Port 
Clignancourt, on a Serpollet tramcar. At the Versailles competition 
of 1898 heavy oils made their first trials as fuel for steam road 
motors with brilliant success, for the Serpollet omnibus successfully 
underwent the severe tests specified by the programme (see 
p. 560). 

In the Negre motor the four cylinders are arranged in form 



of a cross, as shown by Figs. 43 to 45. The four single-action 
pistons have their opposite rods extended and connected by an 
elliptic frame (see Fig. 45). The two frames fit a roller, the axle 
of which is an eccentric pin fixed to the motor shaft. Distribution 
is by two flat slide valves worked by a single eccentric. When 
admission begins behind one piston, and exhaust begins behind the 
opposite one, the two other pistons are at the middle of their 
stroke. Consequently there are not any dead points, and the action 
of the motor on the shaft is more regular. Steam is admitted 
into the valve-chest by the upper tube (Fig. 43); and having done 





















































































STEAM MOTORS FOR AUTOMOBILES. 73 

ErV eS ? PeS mt °, a channel communicating with the pipe to 
seen low down to the right in Fig. 43. When the reversing 

° “ 6V ® r 18 mov ® d from one extreme position to the other thf 
valves slide on their plate and reverse the distribution. The 
intermediary positions correspond to variations of expansion, and 
he middle position to stoppage. A Negre motor with pistons of 
0 cm. (4 in.) diameter and 6 cm. (2'4 in.) stroke, fed by steam at 



10 kg., per cm.- (142 lb. per sq. in.), gives 8 h.p. at 200 revolutions 
per minute; with steam at 15 kg. per cm. 2 (213 lb. per sq. in.), it 
gives 12 h.p. at 400 revolutions per minute; and from 15 h.p. to 
20 h.p. at 1,000 revolutions per minute. 

Steam motors with six cylinders may have brief mention. Certain 
Serpollet motors have six cylinders instead of two or four. In the 
Clarkson-Capel 8 h.p. motor there are six single-acting cylinders, 50 mm. 
(1-97 in.) in diameter, and 150 mm. (5‘9 in.) stroke. The multiplicity 
of cylinders gives such great regularity of working that the engine 
























































































































74 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


can dispense with a fly-wheel, and the cranks are so accurately 

balanced that the motor could run full speed merely suspended 

from a cord. As the cylinders are only single-acting, the joints 

always work in the same direction, and so remain water-tight 
longer. Distribution and reversion are accomplished by slides and 
eccentrics. The engine is fed by water, largely, from the tubular 
condenser, 315 mm. (12‘4 in.) long, to which spiral wire rings are 
attached, to act as radiators ; besides these, the condenser is cooled 
constantly by a fan. The six-cylinder engine worked for 24 con¬ 
secutive hours in the workshop without losing as much as 22T 
(39 pt.) of water. 

Alternating double-expansion motors with two cylinders are 
represented by the de Dion-Bouton, Gillett, Liquid Fuel Engineering 
Company’s, and Steam Carriage and Waggon Company’s motors 
In the de Dion-Bouton motor the two cylinders are horizontal., 
one on each side of the longitudinal axle of the car, and the 
cranks are geared at 90° to assure regularity of working and to 
facilitate starting. A special “ recovering ” valve allows steam to 
be admitted into the large cylinder when an extra effort is 
needed. In some of these motors expansion is uniform by 25 
per cent., and in these, by acting on the steam valve, admission 
and work are made to vary. Most of those now constructed have 
a normal rate for admission of 75 per cent., but this can be varied 
by the Walschaert slide. All the moving parts of the motor are 
enclosed in a cast-iron gear-case, which acts as a frame, lubrica¬ 
tion then being simply effected by shaking. For purposes of 
inspection, two large sides and a lid can be removed from the 
case. 

The particulars given in the table on p. 75 relate to two de 
Dion-Bouton motors respectively employed on an omnibus and 
tramcar, both of which took part in the heavy vehicle competition 
at Versailles in 1897. 

In the Motor Omnibus Syndicate’s Gillett motor, of the steam- 
hammer type, with reversing gear, the cylinders are respectively 
of 100 mm. (3‘9 in.) and 200 mm. (7'8 in.) diameter; their common 
stroke is 125 mm. (4'9 in.), and the motor makes 600 revolutions 
per minute at a speed of 12 miles per hour. It drives an omni¬ 
bus with 25 seats, and, for starting, the steam can be admitted 
directly into the large cylinder. 


STL AM MOTORS FOR AUTOMOBILES. 


75 



Omnibus. 

| Tramcar. 

Diameter of small cylinder . 

Diameter of large cylinder 

Piston stroke . 

Consumption per h.p. at a) 
speed of 18 km. (11 miles) 1°, 
per hour. j water 

Power at 680 revolutions per minute 
Normal admission to small cylinder... 
Piate of expansion in large cylinder ... 
Weight of motor, case included 

100 mm. (3-9 in.) 
190 mm. (7*5 in.) 
170 mm. (67 in.) 

1,500 kg. (3,300 lb.) 

9 1. (15-8 pt.) 

25 h.p. 

75 per cent. ... 
75 per cent. 

800 kg. (1,760 lb.) 

115 mm. (4'5f in.) 
195 mm. (7’7 in.) 
170 mm. (67 in.) 

1,500 kg. (3,300 lb.) 

7 1. (12'3 pt.) 

35 h.p. 

75 per cent. 

75 per cent. 

950 kg. (2,090 lb.) 


The Liquid Fuel Engineering Co/s (Lifu) motor has two hori¬ 
zontal cylinders. The cranks, slides, connecting rods, eccentrics, 
and pump-gear work in boxes half filled with oil, into which water 
cannot enter from the cylinder. The method of distribution, by 
means of cylindric slide valves, is clearly illustrated by Fig. 46. 

The Thorny croft patent steam motor, shown in section by Fig. 47, 
is horizontal, compound, and reversing. Its cylinders are 10T6 cm. 
(4 in.), and 17*8 cm. (7 in.) in diameter by 127 cm. (5 in.) stroke, with 
constant lead; the special radial valve gear permits of any degree 
of linking up. A motor having these dimensions propelled a 2^-ton 
waggon and a 5-ton lurry at the Liverpool heavy vehicle trials 
of 1898. The two cut-off notches are at five-eighths and seven- 
eighths of the stroke. The lubrication is by the splash method, 
the whole mechanism being enclosed in an oil-tight, dust-proof 
casing, in which, however, all parts are readily accessible. The 
exhaust jDasses through the feed-water heater, and thence to the 
smoke-box, in which is a spark arrester; the draught created by the 
exhaust draws all the flue gases through the arrester. The engine is 
said to have a power of 30 h.p. at 500 revolutions per minute. 

Of alternating double-expansion motors with three cylinders, 
the Bourdon-Weidknecht motor is a type. This is a three-cylinder 
compound motor for service in an omnibus having 30 seats. The 
motor has two extreme admitting cylinders, with cranks keyed at 
90°, and a reducing valve with a crank at 135 to the preceding. 
The distributor, with reversing gear and variable expansion, gives 
an admission of from 10 to 87 per cent. This motor develops 












/ 


76 THE AUTOMOBILE. 

nominally 25 h.p., and, exceptionally, 30 and even 35 h.p. About 



Fig. 46 .—Lifu Horizontal Compound Steam Motor. 


1 li.p. must be leckoned for every passenger to be sure of startin°* 
and running along the rising gradients of from 5 to 7 per cent. 










































































































































































































































































































































STEAM MOTORS FOR AUTOMOBILES. 77 

at a speed of from 8 km. to 12 km. (5, to 7-5 miles) per hour. 
, h 'f the consi)m ption is about 3 kg. of coke and from 18 1. 

o — • 0 wa ^er P e1 ' km. (106 lb. coke and from 52 pt. to 63 pt 
water per mile). For an omnibus with 16 seats Bourdon and 

V\ eidknecht abandoned the compound system, employing instead a 
motor with equal cylinders. 



Fig. 47. —Thorny croft Horizontal Compound Steam Motor. 


4 


The Coulthard steam motor and transmission gear, forming one 
mechanism, is illustrated in side elevation by Fig. 48, and in part plan 
and in part horizontal section by Fig. 49. The transmission gear is 
described on p. 281. The motor is of the compound, link-reversing 
gear pattern, claimed to develop 25 brake horse-power at the normal 
speed of 450 revolutions per minute. The cylinders are 9’5 cm. and 
17-7 cm. (3f in. and 7 in.) in diameter, and the stroke is 15-2 cm. 
(6 in.). Only one cover is used for both cylinders and piston valves, 
this cover serving also as the receiver, whilst supporting the 
multiplier which is used for admitting live steam to the low-pressure 













































































78 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


cylinder; the exhaust from the high-pressure cylinder is diverted to 
the atmosphere. The Coultliatd multiplier also serves as a relief 
valve, thus preventing damage through water accumulating in the 
cylinders. Stuffing-boxes are not used. The steam regulator is a 
balanced valve attached to the high-pressure cylinder steam chest. 



As regards rotary motors, it may be remarked how rational would 
be their application to automobiles, and the endeavours made by 
some constructors to realise this idea cannot but meet with approval. 
Experiments have resulted in the invention of interesting types of 
rotary motors for road use, but these, unfortunately, have not yet 
given satisfaction in practice. Gautier and Wehrle studied a rotary 
engine in which distribution is accomplished by aid of a palette which 
the steam (or gaseous mixture) presses against the cylinder actim>- 





























































































































































































































































































STEAM MOTORS FOR AUTOMOBILES. 79 

as a piston. To run with gas, two of these motors are coupled, the first 
sucking in the mixture and forcing it after compression into the second. 

. 6 L ompagme Generate des Automobiles, of which M. Trioulevre 
is director built a steam omnibus, which is driven by a rotary 
epicycloidal motor (A. G. system), represented by Figs. 50 to 53. 

iree discs I) are keyed eccentrically in B, on the motor shaft and 
under pressure of steam, rotate a cylindrical drum: in this move¬ 
ment any point of one of the discs describes an epicycloid, whence 
the term epicycloidal applied to the motor. Fig. 50 corresponds 
to the period of admission for the compartment under consideration; 




Fig. 50.— Gekaiid Rotary Steam Fig. 51.— Gerard Motor : 

Motor : Admission Period. Expansion Period. 


the inclination of the hemispherical cap H, which is followed along 
half its circumference, allows the steam coming from orifice E, through 
the slide valve G to enter the cylinder, where it forces the disc I) 
to roll on the cylinder. When the disc reaches the lower part of 
the cylinder the solid part of the cap H shuts off the steam; then 
admission ceases, and expansion begins (see Fig. 51). When the 
piston disc is in the position of Fig. 52, the orifice F begins to 
uncover, and this is the beginning of the exhaust period. With a 
motor of this kind all speeds intermediary between 60 and 24,000 
revolutions per minute were obtained. The possibility of running 
at a slow rate allows great simplification, if not the entire suppression, 
of the trains of reducing gear generally needed with rotary motors. 
Consumption of steam at the first trials was less than 25 kg. (55 lb.) 
per horse-power hour. In further explanation of the motor, 

































80 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


particular attention is directed to the two vertical sections (Figs. 
52 and 53). In these figures A A are partitions dividing the 
cylindrical body into three compartments, each reserved for a 
piston disc D; the projections B on the motor shaft keyed at 
120 from each other, and acting as cranks for the piston discs, 
with ball bearings to lessen friction; eccentric piston discs D 
on the motor shaft are caused to roll in the cylindrical drums, where 
they are housed; E F are admission and exhaust orifices for steam; 
distributing valves are shown at G; jointed caps are shown at H, 



Fig. 52. —Gerard Kotary Steam Motor : Vertical Section. 


and these regulate expansion by the inclinations they acquire by 
following the movements of discs D ; L L are segment stops to close 
the space between the sides ol the discs and the partitions or the 
cylinder ends; along the part where the discs roll against the 
cylinder a close fit is obtained by the steam pressure on the discs; 

R R are springs pressing the segment stops L L against the partitions 
and ends of cylinder. 

The Arbel-Tihon rotary motor, exhibited at the Tuileries, Paris, 
in 1898, is illustrated in sectional elevation by Fig. 54; the following- 
description of it is by R. Soreau. The body of the pump is a horizontal 
cylinder surmounted by a cap in which is the valve gear. The piston 
is formed first of another cylinder of same length guided so as to 









































81 


STEAM MOTORS for automobiles 

iEs—SS, sr=;= = 

cap. Two cocks are placed symmetrica^ i*'“^d to theTn ^ ^ 
or admission and the other for exhaustion, both being worked by the 
ame handle, so that when one is opened the other'is shut and the 
direction is reversed. Under pressure of steam the advance of £ 
piston cylinder through the agency of the connecting rods causes 
the two cams to advance and consequently the motor shaft to 



Fig. 53. —Gerard Rotary Steam Motor : Vertical Section. 


rotate. The joints are made tight with cork plugs driven with 
great pressure into pockets so as to be flush with the sides of the 
piston. These plugs swell from moisture of the steam, and form, says 
the inventor, excellent joints with very slight friction. A single 
lubricator suffices for all the surfaces. A 140 kg. (308 lb.) motor 
gives 6 h.p. on the shaft with steam at 10 kg. per cm. 2 (142 lb. 
per sq. in.). 

De Lambilly exhibited at the Tuileries, Paris, in 1899 a rotary motor 
characterised by simultaneous working of two palettes, which drive 
the motor shaft by aid of a ring keyed on it, one of the palettes 
being worked outside the ring, whilst the other is inside. Distribu¬ 
tion and reversing are accomplished by oscillation in one direction 
G 






































































82 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


or the other of a disc furnished with a handle and perforated with 
two holes which come into communication with the ports in the end 
of the motor for admission and exhaust. Tight joints are assured 
by regulating the cylinder (inside which the piston ring turns) in 
a vertical direction, and the piston ring horizontally, and by the action 
ot springs pressing the movable segments of the palettes against 



Fig. 54. —Arrel-Tihon Rotary Steam Motor. 


the sides of the cylinder. The work done by the type exhibited at the 
Tuileries is theoretically 9 kgm. per revolution at per kg. of pressure 
per cm. 2 , this being equivalent to 65 ft.-lb. per revolution at a pres¬ 
sure of 14 lb. per sq. in.; the motor easily could make 1,500 revolutions 
per minute and give 8 h.p. 

A few general considerations with regard to steam motors may 
now be stated. Simplicity is all-important. The compound 
system should be reserved for heavy cars, because multiple expan¬ 
sion has not any appreciable effect except for powerful engines 









































STEAM MOTORS FOR AUTOMOBILES . 83 

It is estimated that onlv with o 1 

15 hp does thp p ^ ' motor having a minimum of 

sh by ssss. «ra a 

nethod is good in spite of the increase of weight involved He 
• so . demonstrated that condensation of steam is not essential to 
o tain a minimum consumption, and therefore it is not to be 

nd e rr Ued that th<3 Wat6r ° 0ndenser > owi, ig the amount 

the othe i C ° nS " meS> . Cannot be employed for automobiles. On 
the othei hand, the air condenser should be adopted because the 

ir-Ti e u,i ", * ”“ d - <• 

that can be run without new supplies. This point has a greater 

"ater of'a sMl^ “ t emembered that it is necessary to "obtain 

water of a suitable quality to avoid scale. A condenser must be 

bricated with mineral oil, as any other is saponified, especially at 

o piessures, and the organic acids liberated corrode the tubes 

Even mineral oil must not be allowed to enter the boiler in any 

would ! q T7’ . beCaUSe if iC s P read over the sides there 

t!d be a risk of tire. Improvements are to be desired, for 

though the steam motor already has had a long career, its efficiency 

as shown on p. 576, is very limited. A de Dion-Bouton motor of 

irom 25 to 35 h.p., to give the automobile a speed of 18 km 

mi ® S) P er hour > consumes per horse-power hour 15 k«- 
(3-3 lb.) of coke, and 9 kg. (20 lb.) of steam, the latter being at a 
pressure of 7 kg. per cm.* (100 lb. per sq. in.). A single-acting 
oeipollet motor of 4 h.p. consumes 10 kg. (22 lb.) of steam 
per horse-power hour. The only great progress which can be 
expected is the construction of a really practical rotary motor. 

he only one which is yet in current use, the steam turbine, is 
not applicable to automobile service, because its efficiency is only 
good at an exceedingly high speed, and this would necessitate the 
employment of very heavy reducing gear, which would absorb much 
of the work, and lower the general efficiency. 


84 


CHAPTER V. 

CARBURETTERS FOR PETROL MOTORS. 


A carburetter is employed in the preparation of the charge which 
is ignited in the cylinders of certain types of motors. Nearly all of 
these motors are driven by petrol spirit, which is a distillation of crude 
petroleum obtained between 70° and 120° C., and whose density, that 
is, specific gravity, varies from 0690 to 0 735. Synonymous with 
petrol spirit are “ petrol,” “ light oil,” “ mineral spirit,” “ moto-car 
spirit,” “ moto - essence,” and “ moto - naphtha,” and American 
synonyms are gasoline and benzoline. The best French petrol 
spirit has a density of 0700 at 15° C., and boils at 90 C. In any 
case the density or specific gravity should range from 0675 to 0 710. 

English petrol spirit has a density of 0‘680 at 15*5° C. (60° F.). 
The following table gives the densities of English petrol spirit at 
various temperatures :— 

DENSITY OF PETROL SPIRIT. 


Temperature. 

Density. 

Temperature. 

Density. 

Temperature. 

Density. 

Centigrade. 

Fahrenheit. 

Centigrade. 

Fahrenheit. 

Centigrade. 

Fahrenheit. 

Degrees. 

Degrees. 


Degrees. 

Degrees. 


Degrees. 

Degrees. 

- 

—M 

30 

•695 

10 

50 

*685 

21*1 

70 

•675 

0 

32 

•694 

11-1 

52 

•684 

22-2 

72 

•674 

1-1 

34 

•693 

12*2 

54 

•683 

23-3 

74 

•673 

2-2 

36 

•692 

13-3 

56 

•682 

24*4 

76 

•672 

3*3 

38 

*691 

14-4 

58 

•681 

25*5 

78 

•671 

4.4 

40 

•690 

15*5 

60 

•680 

26-6 

10 

•670 

5’5 

42 

•689 

16-6 

62 

•679 

27-7 

82 

•669 

6-6 

44 

•688 

17-7 

64 

•678 

28-8 

84 

•668 

7-7 

46 

•687 

18-8 

66 

■677 

30 

86 

667 

8-8 

48 

•686 

20 

68 

•676 

311 

* 88 

•666 







32*2 

90 

*665 


If the petrol spirit tested with the densimeter is not at a tempera¬ 
ture of 15° C. (59° F.), add or deduct from the indicated density as 
many times 0 - 8 as the thermometer records degrees above or below 
15° C. Thus at 30 C. (86° F.) add 12 (0’8 x 15 = 12), and at minus 








































CARBURETTERS for petrol motors. 


,08 *,*■- 2i l T '“ ““ ° f lh * densimeter 
, f absol l el y conclusive. Spirits made by mixing extra light 

a.X 0 et n bew i fu ^ 1 ? t0hmmB Can be brou S ht the required density 

Imore vo u i ' NT^' 6 US6 ’ b< “ m the carburetter 
more volatile parts quickly separate from the others and carbu- 

let mg soon becomes impossible. A good spirit is made by rectifying 

and purifying with sulphuric acid and soda the distillate of cn,de 

petroleum within the prescribed limits of temperature given above 

mlm P of Tl J 1° ea i’’ Wth m ° d ° Ur ’ and a few dro P s P™red on the 
Fvl t / , raP , 7 eVa P° rate without leaving any residue, 
tl t . wben of g° od quahty it is advisable not to utilise the dregs 
that is the last few drops, left in the can. Good spirit of 0-700 density 

costs rom 3 ? d. to 4d. per 1. (Is. 3d. to Is. 5'3d. per gal.) outside Paris. 
Halt this price is customs duty. In Paris l-99d. per 1. (9d. per gal) 
must be added for the octroi tax. From two points of view petrol 
spirit is greatly inferior to petroleum. It is more expensive, and its 
volatility is a permanent danger in handling. In America, where as 
a rule the bounds of prudence are not very carefully respected, the 
use of petrol spirit lamps is prohibited. It cannot, then, be insisted 
on too much that automobile drivers should handle petrol spirit 
cautiously and far away from any open flame. In spite of this, petrol 
spirit is preferred to the heavier petroleum, for the three following 
reasons. W ith it failure of ignition of the carburetted mixture is 
rarer, its combustion leaves very little residue, and fouls the motors 
much less. But the most important advantage is that preparation of 
the carburetted mixture is much simpler and safer with petrol spirit 
than with petroleum. The first essential of an automobile motor is sim¬ 
plicity. Now in the petroleum motor the carburetter is sometimes 


rather complicated. With petrol spirit, the explosive mixture can be 
made much more simply, as a detailed study of carburetters as used 
on automobiles will demonstrate. 

To be explosive, the mixture of air and spirit vapour must 
be made in certain fixed proportions. If to one volume of 
vapour is added from 8 to 10 volumes of air, a rich gas, like 
illuminating gas, is obtained, which will burn without exploding, 
lo have an explosive mixture, from 9 to 10 volumes more of 
air must be added to the mixture, which will then contain from 
17 to 20 volumes of air and 1 of spirit vapour. In many car¬ 
buretters the spirit vapour is diluted in two stages, and, in 


86 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


consequence, two distinct air inlets are necessary. The rich gas 
is prepared by evaporating the spirit in contact with the air, 
which is aided sometimes, especially in winter, by circulating 
around the liquid a part of the exhaust gas, or the water which 
has cooled the cylinder. Cold petrol spirit does not volatilise 
sufficiently, and hot spirit does so to excess; so that to preserve 
it at the requisite temperature it must be possible to vary the 
quantity of hot exhaust gas or warm water applied to the heater. 
In the de Dion-Bouton tricycle, for example, there is, at the end of 
the heating-pipe, a kind of screw plug, which can be used to vary 
the working section of this pipe. Frequently this screw plug is 
lost, and Wolff invented a substitute for it, his regulator being 
merely a bronze key fixed firmly in the place formerly occupied 
by the plug. 

Contact of the two fluids (petrol spirit vapour and air) is 
obtained either by making the air bubble through the liquid, or 
simply causing the air to lick the spirit; or again, by previously 
atomising the latter. Consequently, the three classes of carburetters 
are distinguished as bubbling, surface, and atomising carburetters. 

Bubbling carburetters are not much employed now, and, in 
any case, those which have not a constant level must be rejected? 
for if the air does not always pass through an equal depth of 
liquid it is not enriched uniformly. To improve such defective 
carburetters, P. Bapin has devised a regulating float which can be 
adapted without any difficulty. 

In spite of the constancy of level, the degree of enriching may 
vary with the velocity with which the air passes; it certainly 
varies with the composition of the petrol spirit, which tends to 
liberate its more volatile parts, and gradually becomes impoverished. 
This is so much so, that to obtain a constant and sufficient car- 
buretting, and to avoid taking up the solid particles, which very 
quickly foul the cylinder, it becomes necessary to employ the 
carburetter from time to time without using up all the petrol 
spirit which it may contain. The bubbling carburetter has also 
the defect of being somewhat cumbersome, though, on the other 
hand, it is very simple. Constancy of level is easy to obtain 
automatically, by aid of a regulating float, or by the birds’ drinking- 
fountain device. Consequently, it is still employed by first-class 
makers, in particular by Delahaye. 


CARBURETTERS FOR PETROL MOTORS. 


87 


. * f ™ rtmretters are a more numerous class than the pre- 

const^ ’ •“ P T eSS the Sam6 defectS and g ood qualities, although 
constancy °t level is not so important; they are perhaps even 

more cumbersome than those in the first class. The Tenting and 

Benz carburetters belong to this type, as also does the first L^pape 

1 , he f la , tter consists of a hot-water-jacketed vessel, in 
vhich the level of the petrol spirit is maintained constant, as in a 

ires crinkmg fountain. One of the most interesting devices of 
this kind is certainly the de Dion-Bouton carburetter, shown in 
ig. 165, on p. 1S4, which gives such good results on their tricycle. 
Referring to Fig. 165, the vessel A, filled with petrol spirit to a variable 
evel receives the air to be carburetted through the chimney B, 
which can slide in a cylinder, and is furnished at the lower part 
with . a brass plate C, so as always to bring the current of air 
sufficiently near the petrol spirit; the air current, after licking the 
lqmd, ascends along the sides. The top part of the carburetter 
forms a seat containing the two plugs of twin taps. To the left 
the seat has an opening communicating with the carburetter, and 
another opening into the air. Plug R\ movable around its axis, 
has an opening which can be brought opposite one or the other of 
these orifices or both together. Thus this tap can admit pure air 
or petrol spirit, separately or together, in variable proportions. The 
mixture, thus proportioned at will, enters the plug R on the right, 
near the bottom, which is open, and by this tap and the pr'olong- 
ing pipe which passes through the carburetter it is conveyed to 
the cylinder. Taps R and R 1 are worked by levers with little 
handles placed on the higher tube of the tricycle frame. D is a 
float whose attached wire indicates the height of the petrol spirit. 

In the Aster carburetter there is a float on the surface of the 
liquid to lessen the formation of waves due to the jolting of the 
vehicle. The metal plate under which the air licks the liquid is 
connected with this float, and then remains at a constant distance 
from the liquid ; this device assures greater regularityin carburetting. 
The mixture thus formed becomes more intimate in a dome. 

In the Decauville carburetter, evaporation is facilitated by the 
petrol spirit passing up a large round wick; and when the level 
of the liquid in the carburetter falls, the emerging part of this wick 
increases, and the total surface of contact with the air and liquid 
remains about the same. Consequently the only precaution taken 


88 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


to prevent excessive variations of level is to leave the carburetter 

in communication with the petrol spirit tank placed at the same 

level as itself. Wicks are used also in the Papillon and Balbi 

carburetters. The first, which is employed on the Tauzin voiturette, 

consists of two concentric boxes, forming a bell, in the centre of 

which a set of cotton wicks form a surface of evaporation. The 

air circulates between the two boxes and enters the lower one 

through orifices made all round on a level with the liquid ; the 

liquid maintains an almost constant level. The Balbi carburetter, 

employed by Grivel for motor cycles, also consists of two receptacles 

of circular section, one fitted into the other, and communicating 

7 © 



with each other by a valve in the bottom of the lower vessel; a 
series of wicks is arranged on the circumference of the first. 

The Pope Manufacturing Company’s carburetter has a small 
leceptacle inside a large one, which enables cool petrol spirit to 
be run into the carburetter as soon as an extra effort is needed. 
The pure aii to be mixed with the carburetted air enters through 
a pipe arranged with a baffle to prevent noise. 

The Lufbery carburetter (Fig. 55) is of the float-feed kind, but the 
carburetting chamber, A, has a central pipe down which air is drawn 
and the chamber is fitted with baffles around which the air has to 
pass on its way to the engine. The pressure in both chamber A and 
float-chambei B is kept constant by means of an air pipe C, and a 
coiled pipe D conveys some of the exhaust gases through the petrol 
spirit in chamber A and warms it. The admission of" petrol spirit 
































































CARBURETTERS FOR PETROL MOTORS. 


89 


The tw, i “ C °; ltr0lled by “ aUtomatic needle-valve. 

Ihe carburetted air passes to the motor cylinder through pipe E 

Fig. 50 represents the new Petreano carburetter and the 




Fig. 56. —Petreano Cakburettek. 




following description of it is by Witz. The discharge gases run 
through a central pipe r, whose temperature and that of the 
cylinder Y which surrounds it are increased: the pipe has a 
jacket cl, of a spongy permeable asbestos fibre,, constantly kept 





































































90 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


moist with the liquid to be vaporised, which is conveyed into the 
cylinder through an orifice in the top part; air enters by another 
orifice to be seen on the right of Fig. 56. There are four funnels, 
t lt t 2 , t 3 , and two of which are also lined with asbestos, 
forming a baffle and thoroughly mixing the air and petrol spirit 
vapour; finally the carburetted air enters chamber M, passing 
thence through valve N to the motor cylinder. The holes o in the 
base of the funnel cones allow the denser portions of the liquid to flow 
away, as their slow evaporation might interfere with the regularity of 
carburetting. These denser portions accumulate at the bottom of the 
cylinder V, whence they can be run out by a tap shown to the 
right. This carburetter gives a very homogeneous mixture, which 
burns in the most satisfactory way possible. Thorough mixture 
of the oil vapour and the air is really of the greatest importance, 
of which Lenoir already had an idea, and Petreano, instructed by 
the studies of Bandsept and Denayrouse, has since 1896 endeavoured 
to realise this perfect mixture. This thorough diffusion of the 
vapour makes combustion more sudden and more complete, and 
the Petreano system gives very good results with alcohol, it seems. 

Atomising carburetters are the most commonly employed. 
They have the advantage of being less cumbersome than the 
others, giving more uniform combustion, and not leaving any 
useless residue, the petrol spirit being vaporised* completely as 
soon as it is brought into contact with the air. These atomisers 
have the inconvenience, however, of being more delicate, of often 
necessitating at starting the use of hot air, which in the case of 
motors employing electric ignition cannot always be obtained, 
and there is the necessity during a journey after a stoppage of 
any length of time of * cleaning the pipes to remove the cold 
petrol spirit; this latter involves the loss of a little liquid, but 
the loss is not to be compared with that caused by clearing out 
residues from carburetters of the two other types. 

The Daimler-Phoenix carburetter is represented by Fig. 57. 
The petrol spirit arrives from the main tank by the passage N, and 
passes through the wire gauze O, which stops any solid particles 
it contains, into the receptacle A. As soon as it has there 
attained the level of the top part of the nozzle J, through which 
it enters chamber H, the float B lifts the counter-weight E; now 
the rod D, being no longer held up by them, drops and presses 


CARBURETTERS FOR PETROL MOTORS. 91 

the valve C against its seat; the flow of petrol spirit is inter¬ 
red and thus the liquid is always flush with the top of the 
nozzle J. When suction occurs in M, the current of air arrives 
nough F, and the petrol spirit emerges from J. The jets of 
air and spirit break against the mushroom K and mix intimately 
A variable proportion of pure air, to bring the mixture to an 
explosive state, can be admitted by the lantern L. To clean 

ie carburetter it can be emptied by a pipe P, closed with 
a screw cap. 



Figs. 58 to GO show the de Dion-Bouton carburetter as used on 
cars, it being totally different from the tricycle carburetter shown by 
Fig. 165, p. 184, and described on p. 87. The tube t admits air into a 
bronze body A, the tube t 1 taking the carburetted air to the motor. 
The body has a removable bottom, and surplus spirit Hows through a 
hole drilled in it. B is a cylindrical valve turning in body A, regu¬ 
lating the air supply, and terminating at its lower end in a tube of 
smaller diameter, surrounding the nozzle D for part of its length ; a 
prolongation of its upper part receives the adjusting lever I. C is 
an annular brass float composed of two concentric shells united by 




























































































































92 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


flanged and soldered heads, and D is a brass nozzle through which 
the spirit issues. E is the petrol admission pipe, serving also as a 
guide for the automatic valve, and at its lower end is a removable 
cap b, and on this rests a spring supporting a metal gauze strainer 
which arrests impurities in the spirit. Above the cap is the pipe 
leading from the petrol spirit tank. F is an adjustable admission 



Fig. 58, 


Fig. 59. 


Figs. 58 and 59. —De Dion- 
Bouton Carburetter :. 
Vertical Sections. 
Fig. 60. —De Dion-Bouton 
Carburetter : Hori¬ 
zontal Section. 


valve for petrol; it is composed of a brass rod with four longitudinal 
grooves for permitting the flow of the spirit, and its lower end has a 
nickel needle-point, whilst its upper end is drilled and tapped to 
receive the adjusting screw locked by a check nut. By means of the 
double-armed float lever G-, the petrol supply to the float chamber is 
cut off automatically, the float resting on the long arm transmitting 
its upward force to the valve suspended from the short arm ; in the 
illustrations this valve is shown closed. H is a a float chamber 
composed of a brass tube united with the main casting A, and 






































































































































































































CARBURETTERS FOR PETROL MOTORS. 


soldered to a bronze bottom. I is the operating lever, and Iv is a 
screw cap retaining the valve B in chamber A. 

The Bollee carburetter is very similar to the Daimler-Phcenix 
but it has not any lantern above the mixing chamber. The air 
enters only by a lateral opening, furnished with a cone to pre- 

V6 f„ f® n01 ^ Caused > suctiM1 with a wire gauze to keep 
out .dust. This opening is closed by a fixed perforated plate, 



upon which there is another plate which can be moved by hand, 
to regulate the entrance of the air, and consequently the richness 
of the carburetted mixture. 

A very well-known carburetter is the Longuemare, and Fig. 61 
illustrates the latest type, suitable for either methylated spirit, car¬ 
buretted spirit, or petrol spirit. This type was preceded by others 
differing in many important points from the present. The liquid 
passes through pipe I and past conical valve H to the point of arrival 
F in the constant-level receiver A containing the float B; J is the 
cleansing plug, E a spring piston, C the top of the receiver, and 1) the 
screw cap or plug. From the receiver the liquid flows to the actual 























































































































































94 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


carburetter through the regulatable screw valve f L, the liquid being 
driven into the cavity M underneath plug Z, and thence through a 
dozen small vents N into the air chamber K; a supply of fresh air 
coming through the pipe X carries the spray upwards. The carbu- 
retting key S having been opened, the vents P become more or less 
uncovered, and the air and pulverised liquid j^ss through Q, and 
their intimate mixture is assured by the perforated disc O and by 
circulation around the radiating blades d in the gas chamber R, the 
mixture being delivered to the motor cylinder through pipe Y. The 
radiating blades are heated by the exhaust gases which flow into 
space Y. C o is the cover of the carburetter, and e e are passages for 
exhaust gases. When methylated spirit is used alone, not admixed 
with petrol, it is necessary to heat the carburetter before it will start 
working ; afterwards the hot exhaust gases keep it warm. The pre¬ 
liminary heating is done by uncovering the vents c, inserting through 
a some cotton waste soaked in alcohol, and lighting this in the 
space Y. 

A combination of the spray and constant level systems is found in 
the Rochet tricycle carburetter (Fig. 62), which has a general 
resemblance to the Longuemare apparatus. The petrol feed P, drain 
screw G, float F, passage D, and jet 0 resemble the well-known types, 
but the air entering at I passes round a cone H, which enables it to 
spray the petrol spirit whilst both air and spirit are on their way to 
the supply pipe J. A branch pipe, leading from the exhaust, com¬ 
municates with the chamber Y in the usual manner. 

In the Chauveau -carburetter (Fig. 63) there is no auxiliary feed 
tank; the petrol spirit arrives directly from the main tank through 
a pipe fixed on the branch C. Its entrance into the apparatus is 
regulated by the screw needle valve E, and it ascends the central 
tube G, which is shut at the top part by a plug in which there 
are holes terminating at the circular neck H. Outside the tube G 
slides casing I, with openings i i, and solid with the valve J, the 
rod of which is prolonged outside the apparatus, and rests by its 
nut K on a spiral spring, which presses the valve against its seat. 
The fitting of the casing I on the tube G is watertight. When suction 
of the cylinder occurs at A, the valve J falls, and air, admitted at N, 
passes through it. At the same time the orifices i move to opposite 
the chamber H ; and if E has been opened, the petrol spirit issues 
at i, and breaks against the rough truncated cone-shaped sides M 1 . 


CARBURETTERS FOR PETROL MOTORS. 95 

The finely divided spirit mixes with the air, and all passes through 
onfaces o into the cylinder, and during its passage it can be mixfd 
fm the 1 with pure air by means of a special valve. 

The Gautier-Wehrle carburetter is shown by Fio-. 64 j n t m s 
the petro spirit from the main tank is admitted unde°r a rather high 

cTeT whS 6 T 'r E ’ “ atomising 

cone S which forms the top part of the valve. The latter is 
regulated by the screw V and spring, so as to rise slightly under the 




lig. 63.— Chaveau Cakburetter. 


i-'wA y/// 

A 


^8J 




Fig. 64.— Gautier-Wehrle Carburetter. 


influence of the motor’s suction, and allow a little petrol spirit to 
Pass-. The hot air admitted at A meets the atomised spirit, and all 
is mixed with the proper quantity of cold air, which comes through 
orifices made in the lid of the mixing chamber, these orifices being 
moie or less uncovered by a regulatable cap. The charge passes to 
the cylinder through M. This carburetter is believed to be abandoned. 

In the Mors carburetter, Fig. 65, the petrol spirit comes from the 
constant level auxiliary tank t , through the pipe s and tube r to the 
inverted cone u, with grooved sides. The air supplied by the pipe 
v > in the proportion regulated by the plug x, vaporises the petrol 
































































































































96 


TIIE AUTOMOBILE. 


spirit, and passes with it into the cylinder. The valve y affords a 
passage for ?the mixture, and the working section of this passage 
can be varied as required by the driver. 

The de Dietrich carburetter (Arnedee Bollee type) also is of the 
constant level kind (see Fig. 66). The petrol spirit enters the float 
chamber R at r, and the constant level is maintained by the float F 
and the needle-valve C; the passage T and the pipe t are so arranged 
that the petrol tends to flow through them into the chamber A. The 
upper end of the pipe t normally is closed by the needle Y; a 
perforated disc is fixed to the needle between the lower chamber A, 
into which air is drawn through the pipe indicated in section, and the 



Fig. 65. —Mors Carburetter. Fig. 66. —De Dietrich Carburetter. 


upper chamber D, which is connected with the supply pipe and cylinder 
admission valves. The suction of the motor piston causes this plate 
to open the pipe t whenever air is being drawn past it, the lift of the 
plate being regulated by a hand adjustment shown. The object of the 
plate is to spray the petrol spirit as it is carried through by the air. 

Another constant level carburetter is that of Georges Richard 
(Fig. 67), and in this the spraying action of the inrushing air is used 
to pulverise the petrol spirit by dashing it between the surface of an 
inverted cone M and the corrugated surface Iv of a containing 
passage. The air enters the pipe G, lifts the cone M, and passes 
through the inlet valve of the motor. By pipe A the petrol spirit 
enters chamber C containing float B, and flows through the passage D 
into the annular space E. Small holes F through the seating of the. 












































































































MOTORS. 


97 


CARBURETTERS FOR PETROL 
<'°ne M lead into the space E.and the petrol spirit thus is fed into the 

" " ,c “ v T s*— M »—* 1 -«« 

{he old type of Peugeot carburetter (Fig. 68) has its body in 
• tube forming part ot the motor cylinder or joined to it the body 
bemg perforated with holes to allow the entrance of air brought 

10 P ' pe a ' lhere ,s a ca P h > an d upon this are fixed the inlet 



tube c foi the liquid, and the nozzle d normally shut by the needle o 

seat e bv S the° n -‘I"* ^ ^ ^ *’ USUall >’ pressed «*«mst its 
} J spiral spring r, opens downwards, drawing with it the 

neec e le petrol spirit reaches the inverted cap p, which dis- 

tributes it on the wire gauze cone t 

. P ie P eu g eot new carburetter is shown by Fig. 69. The petrol 
spirit enters it through pipe e, and runs into tank a as long as 
the cork float b , by resting on c, keeps the needle d raised. As soon 
as the float is sufficiently raised not to press on c, ‘the needle d 
falls by virtue of its own weight, and closes the inlet. The 











































































98 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


apparatus is regulated in such a manner that the level in the tank 
a is maintained a little lower than the nozzle o, thus preventing 
the petrol spirit from overflowing into the carburetter chamber f. 
Under the influence of the motor’s suction, the petrol spirit issues 
from the nozzle o against the atomising plug l; a current of air 
heated by burners then arrives through a tube situated above this 



air-current, following a direction perpendicular to the jet of spirit, 
owing to the deviation caused by a socket with baffles in combina¬ 
tion with a wire gauze, which retains the fine parts of the 
non-vaporised petrol spirit, and assists the intimate carburetting 
of the air. The delivery of the petrol spirit remains constant. 
Shutters placed on each side of the tube which conveys the hot 
air render it possible to admit cold air to obtain a normal degree 
of carburetting; the movable diaphragm n, worked by a screw, 
also helps to modify the mixture of hot and cold air, and, in con¬ 
sequence, that of the carburetted mixture which is conveyed to the 













































































































































CARBURETTERS FOR PETROL MOTORS. 99 

.1 t 

“ :l* %■nr ;■ »,.•** ^ ^ as 

when choked by the foreign substances removed from’the pelrol 



» 

Fjg. 70.— Abeille Carburetter. Fig 71.— Lepape Carbu¬ 

retter : Old Type. 

motor PeUge0t , tir ™ a,S ° regulates tlle working of this new 

For this 3 e “ POran { cuttll k? off tho SU PP1J' °f the petrol spirit, 
t ns purpose, in the nozzle o is fixed a transversal cock, which 

a spring continually tends to open, but which the levers r’ of the 

regulator on the motor shown by Fig. 108, p. 150, shut when the 

speed increases; then the motor sucks only air, and no explosion 
occurs in the cylinder. 

The Abeille constant level carburetter (Fig. 70) combines the float 
i e principle with a more or less perfect pulverising device, the spirit 
emg v ept at the level of the top of a small nozzle by a float feed 
arranged in a neighbouring chamber. In the chamber A is a float B 

H 2 


L.cfC. 


> > 
) * ' 






























































































































100 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


resting on one end of a lever D, whose other end supports the spindle C r 
at the lower end of which is a needle-valve through which the petrol 
spirit flows, the supply being automatic. Air enters by the tube H 
through the lower part of the converging passage, the throttled 
portion corresponding to the end of the pipe E, and the air carries 



with it a quantity of petrol spirit previously regulated by the size of 
nozzle orifice J. The mixture is thrown on the hollow cone G, pierced 
with a great number of small holes through which passes the 
additional supply of fresh air. For this purpose the cone G has a 
movable cap L, containing four openings M, opened or closed by the 
rotation of the cap. The carburetted air passes to the motor through 















































































































































CARBURETTERS FOR PETROL 


MOTORS. 


101 


SenL F°riT Sin 5 v °A adjl , lstin - the nozzle J it suffices to unscrew 
i t I d Wlthdraw the V [ P G E b y the lower part 
. In the Le P a P e ca *Wtter (1898 type) shown by Fig. 71 the petrol 

ramoSl ! 0Ugl ! a « b t a ’ fl ' 0m a Sma11 tank > and fills a small space 
„ y a va ve S, the threaded rod of which supports the light 

“find ‘ 1 " r 5f table he * ht This <»P fits quite freely on the 

wi h ?h h , , 1S °y n , at t0p ’ and at the base is connected 

with the hot air inlet E, the outlet to the motor cylinder being on 

. ' Slde at G - Under the effect of suction of the motor cylinder 
piston the cap C falls in spite of the upward force of the spring of 

. 16 ™ ve k w 11C1 °P ens and allows a little petrol spirit to overflow 
into the cylinder b, through orifices « on to the wire gauze /, in con¬ 
tact with the hot air sucked in at E. A suitable quantity of pure 
air is added to the mixture by a cock placed on the pipe G, which 
supplies the motor cylinders. 

r represents the 1899 type of the Lepape carburetter, which 

V ers from the preceding by having a valve b, the method of intro¬ 
ducing the petrol spirit, and by the addition of a ferrule cl with hit- 
and-miss holes to vary the admission of cold air. The petrol spirit is 
rought by the pipe m, passing under valve b (normally maintained 
a little above its seat by its union with the valve a and the spring z) 
and fills the chamber c; f and a: are the spindle and spring 
respectively of valve a. When suction of the piston takes place 
m T the hood G falls, and forces down the valve a, into the chamber c, 
causing a certain amount of petrol spirit to overflow. The admission 
and emission of the petrol spirit are moreover regulated by the 
position of the hood on its screw, this position being main¬ 
tained by the threaded nut A , and by the force of suction which 
can be decreased by allowing fresh air to enter by ferrule d. The 
petrol spirit hills on P, the lantern with wire gauzes through which 
the hot air comes from A. The mixture passes through T to the 
cylinder. E is a screw needle valve, which at starting is unscrewed 
to allow a little petrol spirit to fall through the opening o, on to the 
lantern P, and is completely removed to clean the spirit intake tubes. 

In the latest type of the Loyal carburetter, Fig. 78, the petrol 
spirit contained in tank K flows around the needle M 0 in drops 
which can be seen through the opening R and hills through 
orifices U, into the mixing chamber I. The air sucked by the 
motor arrives through pipe V mounted on the casing X, and fur- 


102 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


nished with a regulating valve S. The mixture thus formed is 
completed in passing through the wire gauzes Z, and then goes to the 
motor cylinder. 

In the Bouvier-Dreux or Dorey carburetter (Fig. 74) the petrol 
spirit is kept at a permanent level in the tank B by the float C fur¬ 
nished with a needle D, which commands the opening of the inlet 
pipe, and a level indicator J; this level is established through 
channel E in the nozzle F at 1 mm. (0‘04 in.) below its orifice. 
Around this nozzle are three spiral grooves which force the air 



Fig-. 74. —Bouvteii-Dkeux or Dorey Carburetter. 


sucked by the motor through pipe Cl to acquire a gyratory motion ; 
at the same time, under the influence of suction, a small , amount 
of petrol spirit issues from nozzle F, is agitated, and mixes with the 
eddying air. To make the mixture intimate the complemental air 
supply and the current of enriched air break against the vanes of two 
little turbines H H 1 , situated in the chamber above the nozzle ; these 
turbines turn very rapidly owing to the suction of the motor through 
a pure air inlet valve not shown in Fig. 74, but which is placed 
symmetrically as regards the pipe I, through which the charge passes 
to the motor. At starting, this air inlet valve is gradually opened 
until the best mixture is obtained. Air previously heated by the 
motor can be admitted through conduit G to aid vaporisation in 
cold weather. 













































































CARBURETTERS FOR PETROL MOTORS. 103 

The Jupiter carburetter has points of similarity with the pre¬ 
ceding it having a permanent level by float and hehcoidal grooves 

ound the petrol spirit intake nozzle, and there are palettes in the 
mixing chamber. 1 

The Roussy de Sales or Sales and Braby carburetter (Figs. 75 and 76) 




is a box J, divided into compartments, 2 and 3, by the partition 4. The 
petrol spirit enters compartment 2 by pipe 5, whose orifice is opened 
by the needle (j, under the action of the lever 7, brought near by 
spring 8 and repelled by rod 9 of the piston ] 0. The piston ascends 
inside the cylinder 11 under the influence of the motor’s suction, 
and unmasks the orifice 12, by which the air is admitted through 
openings 13 into box 14, furnished on its upper part with alternate 
layers of wire gauze and spongy textiles saturated with petrol spirit. 











































































104 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


The carburetted air passes to the motor cylinder through pipe 20, 21, 
after receiving through valve 23, worked by lever 24, the correct 
amount of fresh air ; the name “ charging-saturator ” is given to 
this appliance. 

The Huzelstein carburetter (Fig. 77) is known favourably on the 
Continent, and in it the supply of petrol spirit is determined by a 
spring-controlled needle-valve, actuated by atmospheric pressure when 
a partial vacuum is created in a closed chamber which is in com¬ 
munication with the motor cylinder during the piston’s suction stroke. 
A cylindrical chamber is closed at the upper end by a cap containing 
holes, a; a, which admit air, and affixed axially to this cap is a stem 
or tube in connection with the supply pipe E, leading from the 
petrol supply tank situated above. The admission of petrol is 
controlled primarily by the screwed needle-valve, which can be given 
any desired opening, the amount of this being indicated by a finger 
attached to the handle moving over a graduated disc. Within the 
cylinder is a valve attached to a spindle, and held up to its seat by a 
spring upon the spindle. The upper part of the cylindrical chamber 
is surrounded by a jacket which communicates with the exhaust, 
the lower part being in communication with the motor cylinder 
during the intake stroke. The bottom cap of the cylindrical chamber 
is perforated and fitted with a rotating disc, so as to vary the area of 
the air inlet holes and in consequence the amount of air admitted. 
The action is thus: The upper needle-valve is opened by turning the 
handle to admit a certain quantity of petrol spirit; on the suction 
stroke of the motpr the middle valve drops, opening the needle-valve, 
and also, by the partial vacuum thus formed, allowing air to enter at 
a a. The air and petrol, entering the upper part of the chamber 
which is heated by the exhaust gases, are heated quickly and the 
petrol spray is vaporised. A further supply of fresh air is obtained 
through the orifice in the lower part of the chamber, the charge 
passing to the motor through A. This carburetter acts well when 
new, but the tapping action of the pointed pin in the bottom of 
the fire tube has a tendency to cause leakage and the ultimate 
destruction of the oil outlet. 

The Pretot carburetter is a double chamber, having adjustable 
orifices, for the admission of air ; within the inner chamber is a 
bell-valve which has a stem terminating in a needle-valve. The 
action is as follows: On the suction stroke the bell-valve rises, and 


CARBURETTERS 


FOR PETROL MOTORS. 


105 


pet^l spirit flows up through the needle-valve and under the lips 
the bell-valve; then it mingles with the air in the mixing 
chamber, and the mixture passes to the motor cylinder 

Of :,'rr Carl ; Uretter f lmite in 0ne a PP llance > the peculiar features 
ot the three classes above described, but of this fourth class only 




Fig-. 77.— Huzelstein Car¬ 
buretter. 

Figs. 7S and 79 .—Gautier 
Carburetter. 


one device—the Gautier carburetter employed for David cars—will 
be mentioned. It is illustrated by Figs. 78 and 79, in which A 
is the inlet for the petrol spirit, whose delivery is regulated bv 
the double diaphragm, which prevents the section of the flow of 
the petrol spirit from being,enlarged appreciably by contact with 
the valve K, which rests only on the exterior diaphragm. Valve K, 
which regulates the delivery of the petrol spirit, opens at the 
proper instant, under the action of the current of air caused by 
suction. The petrol spirit falls on the saucer F, and thence into 





































































































































































106 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


the tank H, above Avhich is the pipe G, supported by a ring at 
such a height that only its lower edge is in contact with the 
petrol spirit. The air sucked through I circulates in chamber L, 
and licks the petrol spirit in the saucer F, the mixture then passing 
to the cylinder through E. 

In the carburetters hitherto described the petrol essence arrives 
simply by gravitation, whereas in some others mechanical devices 
are employed, these being known as mechanical distributors. 
Thus, in the Klaus carburetter, the petrol spirit is injected by aid 
of a pump, which is worked by the motor cylinder exhaust valve 
cam, and driven back after each piston stroke by a spring. 

The Henriod distributor-carburetter is thus named because it 
mechanically distributes at each suction of the cylinder piston a 
volume of petrol spirit; this volume is fixed by regulating the 
apparatus, and does not depend upon the temperature at which 
carburetting is effected, contrary to what occurs in ordinary car¬ 
buretters. In the cylindrical body of the apparatus are two valves, 
normally pressed upon their seats by springs; the top screwed 
extremity of one valve rod has a nut-disc, into which a regulating 
screw enters vertically. The second valve has a hollow rod, which 
can slide between the solid valve rod and a cylindrical casing. In 
the casing a little below the second valve is a circular compartment, 
which is in permanent communication with the petrol spirit tank 
by means of an orifice. As soon as suction is produced in the 
cylinder, the valve with the solid rod falls, alone at first; and then, 
when the screw referred to comes into contact with the second valve- 
rod (and contact takes place more or less rapidly, according to the 
depth the screw has been sunk in the nut at the time of regulating) 
the two valves move together. The combined two valves stop as 
soon as the nut-disc of the first touches the cylinder below. Whilst 
the second valve is raised from its seat, the petrol spirit flows 
into circular grooves made in the cap of the same valve. There 
it is in contact with hot air admitted by a first row of orifices. 
The mixture passes to a chamber underneath, where is added a 
suitable amount of fresh air. The amount of liquid which enters the 
apparatus each time is thus regulated by the nut-disc and its screw. 

Like the apparatus just described, the Brillie distributor 
mechanically distributes petrol spirit, but instead of introducing a 
fixed quantity each time and preparing the carburetted mixture‘ 


CARBURETTERS FOR PETROL MOTORS. 107 

with it as an ordinary carburetter does, it measures each time, under 
control of the regulator, the requisite liquid for the charge the 
mixing m air being effected in the pipe from the distributor to 
the cylinder, and in the cylinder itself'. Quantities of the petrol 
spirit are measured in the Brillie distributor as follows -—A single 
plug, with equidistant pockets on the circumference, turns in a 



Fig. 80 , 


Fig. 80.— Gibbon Cakbukettek. Fig. 81.— Fauke Carburetter. 

Fig. 82. —Dawson Carburetter. 


seat communicating with the petrol spirit tank. Each pocket, 
when filled with liquid, is brought, by rotation of the plug, opposite 
an orifice which communicates with the motor by an orifice and 
a strainer. Rotation is caused by a pawl-and-ratchet gear which 
governs the motor shaft by a connecting rod of the regulator. 
If the regulation speed is exceeded, a tripping device stops both 
rod and distributor, and the supply of petrol spirit ceases. By 
giving more or less play to a spring, a lever allows the motor to 
perform a greater or lesser number of revolutions (250 to 1,000 























































































































































108 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


per minute). Thus, the amount of petrol spirit for each cylinder 
charge is just what is required for uniform carburetting, com¬ 
plete combustion, and the avoidance of odour. This, at least, was 
the inventor’s object, and time will tell whether he has fully 
succeeded. The Brillie carburetter, which is rather a distributor 
with which carburetting is effected in the suction chamber, is a 
transition quite naturally suggesting petroleum carburetters pro¬ 
perly so called. (For the distinction between petrol spirit and 
petroleum, see p. 84.) 

For vaporising petroleum, which is much less volatile than 
petrol spirit, two extra aids are often employed; these extra aids 
are ( a) the heat furnished by a petroleum lamp (or the heat 
produced by the working of the motor sometimes is used instead), 
and (b) the use of a pump which injects at each of its strokes 
the requisite amount of petroleum. 

The Gibbon carburetter for petroleum (Fig. 80) has a valveless 
pump, x w, which injects petroleum through x l y 1 from tank y into the 
atomiser above. This atomiser is a bell-mouthed tube u, with wings 
u l partly entering the combustion chamber, of which it forms the 
igniter. A casing fits lightly around the latter and prevents its 
being cooled by contact with the cool air. At starting, it is 
heated by an exterior lamp, and afterwards the charge ignites spon¬ 
taneously after each compression. 

In the Faure carburetter (shown by Fig. 81) the petroleum is 
brought by the pipe p, and the air by the cap a. This air follows 
the path marked in the figure by arrows, flowing through the com¬ 
partments divided by wire gauze, and leaves by s on its way to the motor. 
The lamp l, for heating the tube c, which ignites the cylinder charge, 
also heats the petroleum contained in the vessel r. This lamp is 
arranged in the same manner as the burners of a petroleum furnace, 
and carries a small unstopping needle t. At h is seen the valve 
which admits the air necessary to complete the mixture. 

The Dawson carboretter (Fig. 82) has its jacket traversed by the 
exhaust gas; the pipe a connects with the petroleum supply tank, 
and with the air under pressure. At the end of this pipe is a 
valve g, with its rod prolonged in a perforated tube, until it comes 
into contact with the valve h, worked mechanically. When the 
valve h opens to admit a charge into the cylinder, it forces the valye 
g to rise, and the petroleum flows into the perforated tube at the 


loy 


CARBURETTERS FOR PETROL MOTORS. 

same time as the air enters at o. The air to complete the charge 
. admltted % ^ automatic clack valve /,:, and at /' is a lamp for 
starting. The temperature of the carburetter is regulated by the 
expansion of a piece of copper placed in the exhaust pipe, this ex¬ 
pansion tending to more or less open the butterfly-valve 6 of a by¬ 
pass which carries off the burnt gases, and consequently lowers the 
temperature. 

Another type of Dawson carburetter is shown by Fig. 83; it has 
a tubular body and at one end is a revolving cap containing air 
holes corresponding to the air holes 1 in the body; this cap adjusts 
the amount of air which enters. The baffle-block 3 causes the air to 
pass ovei the suifacc of a cone, and to go through a restricted passage 



foi med by it, and also it provides an internal and stepped conical 
chambei into which the oil is delivered. An engine-operated pump 
feeds to the needle-valve 2 oil which afterwards passes through the 
small channel illustrated, and issues from the centre of a second 
ridged cone, which serves as a further baffle to the passage of the 
incoming an. The carburetted mixture thus formed is drawn through 
the wire gauze 4 to the motor cvlinder 

A petroleum carburetter, known as the Moorwood-Bennet, recently 
was in successful use at the University College, Sheffield, and whilst, 
as far as is known, this is not applied in general to automobile 
purposes, its construction is such as to make its description here 
interesting. One of the principles of its action is the heating of the 
oil instead of the air, the latter being caused to percolate through the 
oil. The following particulars and the illustration, Fig. 84, are taken 
from the Engineer. The carburetter is a closed cylindrical vessel 






















































no 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


whose lower part A (Fig. 84), lias two openings B and C, one com¬ 
municating with the engine exhaust and the other with the atmosphere. 
The upper part D communicates with the motor cylinder through 
the pipe E. Of two concentric cylinders inside A, the larger F is 



connected a pipe to the reservoir G. The cover at the top of A 
is perforated as shown, so that the two parts A and D are in 
communication. Air reaches the innermost cylinder H by means 
of the perforations J shown at the top, and the lower end of H 
goes nearly to the bottom of cylinder F, and is shown enlarged 
by the side illustration. Inside the disc or flange K slides a tube 









































































































































CARBURETTERS FOR PETROL MOTORS. Ill 

with holes M and a flange L at the bottom; and the spindle N 

s ir rk*: iB r 

« drawn ^ op „ " e ,“5 

appal.1 r“*° *. -iTTSt 
apparatus, the suction of the motor piston causes air to enter at 

V to P ass throu gh the oil ill H, through the openings M un 

f » F. out a, .1,, holes in ,h. 3p' K J 

to T i, r: S « E “ the ”*>' nJ exhaust *Zs 

m the jacket A warm the oil and facilitate working. Originally 

tetwecrr' 01 ’ !° °f Ch all 1 ° il Sti11 in ^ Uid fo ™> interposed 
hetneen the carburetter and the motor, but the use of this was 

iscon mued, or at any rate it is not an essential. Russoline and 

o her petroleums are used, and practically all the by-products in 

draw ott ih Pr T nt 6ntering the ° ylinder ’ and is easy to 

. tt the d ®P 0Slt °f resi(Iue from the carburetter whilst the 
mom remains clean, neither cylinder nor valves being c W e d 

In some motors carburetting is not accomplished by any’special 
separate appliance. The Koch (p. 175) and Kane-Permington <p 176) 
motors are of this kind. During suction, in the Kane-Pennington 
mo or, the petrol spirit falls on a metal wire gauze of a spiral shape 
placed m the upper part of the cylinder, and forming part of an 
electric circuit whose current ignites the explosive mixture. This 

slight rise of temperature suffices, it appears, to completely vaporise 
the petrol spirit. L 

A few general remarks on carburetters may here be given 
advantageously. The atomising apparatus is better than those 
that simply lick, as has been shown. Of course, it cannot be 
said that they do not need supervision, because the direction and 
strength of wind and. the outside temperature often cause during 
a journey some variation in the physical condition and quantity 
of air admitted into the carburetter, and thus necessitate at 
least an alteration in the working section of the air inlets. How¬ 
ever, with a good atomising carburetter, this regulation or alteration 
is easy enough, and the apparatus is not disturbed by the jolting 
of the vehicle. Consequently, most automobiles are provided with 
an atomising carburetter^ Motor cycles, on the contrary, have 
hitherto been obliged to dispense with them, because, in this case, 
the suction of the motor is not always powerful enough, however 


112 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


little may be the power needed, to bring the atomising carburetter 
into work, open a valve, and convey the petrol spirit into the 
apparatus. This power is not always obtainable, because in motor 
cycles variation of the amount of the charge taken in by the 
cylinder is the only means generally of obtaining different rates of 
speed, and when this intake decreases below a certain point, suction 
simultaneously gets feeble. Ignition advance, which will be considered 
later (see p. 128), is not adopted to vary the speed but rather to 
follow already accomplished variations by producing ignition at the 
precise moment when it is most advantageous for the good com¬ 
bustion of the explosive mixture. 

Carburetting produced by simple licking or surface contact is 
irregular, and is also influenced by the waves produced in the 
carburetter by the jolting of the car; thus it is to be hoped that 
atomising carburetters, sufficiently delicate for use on motor cycles, 
will be produced. According to Baudry de Saunier, who has explained 
the matter lucidly, the problem has been solved already by the 
firm of de Dion-Bouton. The length of the pipe which joins the 
carburetter to the motor cylinder must be regulated suitably; by 
decreasing its length, the carburetter is brought nearer the cylinder, 
the heating in which favours atomising of the petrol spirit in the 
carburetter; by increasing the length, more time is given for 
the mixture to become intimate during its short stay in the pipe 
before being sucked into the motor cylinder. 

To prevent flames from entering the carburetter and causing 
fire, a risk particularly to be dreaded with a surface carbu¬ 
retter, in which there is always a considerable accumulation of 
petrol spirit, a wire gauze partition must be placed in the pipe, as 
much as possible at a point where the diameter is enlarged, so that 
the working section will remain sufficient. This communication 
of flames may be caused by the inlet or exhaust valves not shut¬ 
ting at the proper time. 


113 


CHAPTER VI. 

PETROL MOTORS. 

£? 11 « w «*„ 

Miot. c,cfc of operations, known i» 0„„, Brita“« < t^oZ '“T 

”* "* 

Fire, «Sr 1 i ;s;.^ i “"'*““ i “——— 

F ' ret compressed'^ e °' ««*>, *>■*. i, 

*~?4S3i “” ke of »*. <=■»*. 

S«o„d rot.™ stroke of pieton.^.vengering atroke, g«* 
or combustion are expelled. 

Thus there is only one working stroke in every four two for- 
var an two return, and there are two revolutions of the crank 

quned and the fewer the motor cylinders the heavier must be 
so , “ 'lirf' “ ? “ tl ”, “ ““ 1»“»™ *» coupled 

... usl ; TZ 'Zrf 7T c, : y , ot , eybiea l0 “ 

J now ot tne size of the fly-wheel being- decreased 
leoretically the two-stroke cycle motor, giving one working stroke 
pei revolution of the crank shaft, would be more rational, but there 
is great difficulty in realising it. The Benz type, which was in¬ 
vented with a two-stroke cycle motor, now is made only on the four- 
stroke cycle. It may also be remarked that existing four-stroke 
cycle motors perform 600 or 700 revolutions (sometimes 1,000 and 
3,000) per minute, thus giving a regularity far removed from the 
results given by Daimler’s 150 or 200 initial revolutions. More¬ 
over motors of the four-stroke cycle consume less fuel than motors 
of the two-stroke cycle. However, the two-stroke cycle motor is 
practicable, being employed by Loyal, Conrad, and Dufour; and 

T 


114 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


there is even a six-stroke cycle motor, this being made by Francois 
Goret, the fifth and sixth piston strokes being intended to cause a 
flow of pure air through the cylinders, so as to have the carburetted 
mixture constant and uniform and capable of ready ignition. I his 
flow of air has the advantage also of cooling the motor cylinder. 
Before leaving alternating motors, mention must be made of the 
Duryea petrol motor, constructed on a new principle, explosion 
taking place in a special tank acting the part of the boiler in steam 
motors, and supplying the cylinder with gases under pressure. The 
Diesel motor, also, will have to be considered, although this, as far 
as is known, has not yet been applied to automobiles, but it perhaps 
will soon give them considerably greater efficiency than they now 
possess. Finally, mention will be made of the efforts put forth, 
in spite of difficulties, by some constructors with regard to applying 
the rotary principle to petrol motors. Four of these progressive 
constructors are Vernet, Batley, Dodement, and Andre Beetz. 

In most of the four-stroke cycle motors the carburetted mixture 
is admitted into the cylinder by automatic valves retained on their 
seats by the pressure of a spiral spring and opening under the 
sucking action of the piston. The escape of the products of the 
explosion is assured by a valve worked by levers and a cam fixed 
on a shaft connected with the motor shaft by a system of toothed 
gears which make the cam shaft rotate once whilst the motor shaft 
rotates twice; thus, the exhaust valve opens once during every two 
revolutions of the motor shaft. However, there are exceptions to 
these. In some motors, the P. Gautier, Moreau, Berrenberg, Deliry, 
Le Brun, Roser-Mazurier, for instance, the inlet valve is worked 
mechanically. In some others, like the Tenting motor, the exhaust 
valves are worked by an eccentric. In the Rossel motor the 
exhaust valves are worked by a crank boss which is mounted on 
the motor shaft between the two crank plates; two buttons 
connected with the valves by hinged levers run in a groove which 
twice passes round the crank boss. In the Gibbon petroleum motor 
distribution is obtained by a valve described as being single, but 
which is complicated by a slide valve. In the Dawson motor, also 
working with petroleum, there are no valves worked by cams or 
levers, valves being replaced by orifices made in the cylindrical 
casing constituting the piston, and in the cylinder itself; the piston 
by its circular motion brings these orifices opposite each other at the 


PETROL MOTORS. 


115 


proper time. The Conrad two-stroke cycle motor has a similar system 
of distiibution; the Loyal two-stroke cycle motor has two automatic 
distributing valves, whilst the, I)ufour motor, also two-stroke cycle, 
has an automatic inlet valve with a circular exhaust slide valve worked 
by a cam. All the methods of distribution above mentioned are 
single-acting, that for tank motors like the Duryea may be 
double-acting. As regards the rotary motors, the Vernet system 
distributes the carburetted mixture by valve, lever, and cam. 

Whatever may be the mechanical means employed to assure 

distribution, the various phases should be perfectly regulated, 
particularly as regards exhaust. Theoretically, exhaust should 
begin at the end of the second forward stroke, that is the working 
stroke of the piston, but practically it begins a little before, so 
that there is a little lead in the exhaust. This lead, far from de¬ 
creasing the power gathered by the piston, in allowing a slight 
amount of the pressure of the gases to be lost, augments the 
piston force by preventing an otherwise considerable counter¬ 
pressure from arresting the impetus of the piston during its return 
stroke. In fact, just as ignition advance, as explained on p. 128, 
is arranged to give the explosion time to take place perfectly, so 
the advance in the exhaust allows the exhaust to be quite 

complete before the following suction stroke begins. Lead or 

advance in exhaust is even more necessary than advance in ignition, 
because the evacuation, which occurs with a constantly decreasing 
pressure, is certainly less rapid than the explosion. Needless to 
say the advantage in question increases as the motor revolves more 
rapidly. With only 400 or 500 revolutions per minute there is 
hardly any advantage, practically none, but it begins after this 
rate. It must be remembered that 2,500 revolutions per minute 
(often attained by small motors like the de Dion-Bouton) corre¬ 
spond to 5,000 strokes to and fro per minute, that is about 84 
strokes with 21 explosions and 21 exhausts per second. As for 
shutting the exhaust valves, this should be done as indicated by 
theory at the precise time when the second back stroke of the 
piston ceases. Did it take place earlier the residual gases would 
prevent the piston from reaching the end of its throw and the 
new gases from filling the cylinder during the following suction 
stroke; and were it to take place later the burnt gases would be 
sucked in at the same time as the explosive charge, and there 


116 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


would be great difficulty in starting the motor to set it to work. 
In fact, during the first suction strokes pure air would enter by 
the exhaust valve at the same time as carburetted air entered by 
the inlet valve, and the mixture would be diluted with an excess 
of air and would not be explosive. The mixture would become 
explosive only by progressive enrichment after a considerable 
number of cylinderfuls, the exhaust valve allowing the entrance 
of a mixture successively more and more carburetted. The exhaust 
can be well regulated by suitably cutting the cam governing the 
valve, and often this regulation can be done only after long trials. 
According to Georgia Knap the diameters of the exhaust valves 
should be as follow, according to the stroke of the piston:— 


Bore of Motor Cylinder. 


60 mm. (2'36 in.) to 70 mm. (2*75 in.) 
75 mm. (2'94 in.) to 85 mm. (3'34 in.) 
More than 85 mm. (3'34 in.) 


Diameter of Exhaust Valve. 


18 mm. (0‘7 in.) to 25 mm. (0'97 in.) 
25 mm. (0‘97 in.) to 32 mm. (T25 in.) 
32 mm. (T25 in.) to 38 mm. (1*49 in.) 


Sometimes the exhaust valves are made of rolled nickel prefer¬ 
ably to steel, because a deposit of oxide forms on steel and 
prevents the joints remaining watertight. They are brazed on a 
hard Bessemer steel rod, sometimes protected by a nickel jacket 
to prevent the rod being corroded by the hot gas. The valve 
seats are made of cast-iron or cast-steel, the latter being very 
suitable for nickel-jacketed steel rods, and they should be of 
perfectly uniform thickness, so that expansion will be the same in 
all directions and the joints remain good. The diameter of the 
exhaust pipes should be greater than that of the valves to 
avoid strangling the gases and to assure their expansion; for a 
valve of 25 mm. (0*97 in.) the pipe should generally be 35 mm. 
(1*37 in.). The lift of the valves is from 5 mm. to 6 mm. (0T9 in. 
to 0'23 in.) for cylinders of from 60 mm. to 70 mm. (2\36 in. 
to 2*75 in.) bore, and from 8 mm. to 9 mm. (0'31 in. to 0 35 in.) 
for cylinders of from 70 mm. to 90 mm. (2'75 in. to 3'54 in.) 
bore. In order to bring the lift of the valve to the normal 
standard which it is essential to retain, and which the play of the 
joints tends to destroy, the valve rods are furnished with adjusting- 
screws. The springs which press the exhaust valves against their 







PETROL MOTORS. 


117 


seats must be powerful enough to prevent the valves opening 
during suction and the burnt gases from re-entermg the cylinder. 
To avoid their being softened under the action of heat, some¬ 
times devices are adopted to insulate them from the motor or at 
least to remove them to a distance from its hot parts. Suction is 
easier to regulate than exhaust; the valve and inlet pipe for the 
carburetted gas should have a sufficient suction to enable the 
cylinder to be filled rapidly; in a cylinder with bore of from 60 

mm. to 90 mm. (2’36 in. to 3‘54 in.), and piston stroke of from 

70 mm. to 160 mm. (2*75 in. to 6'28 in.), the diameter of the 

valves varies from 15 mm. to 30 mm. (0 58 in. to 118 in), and 

that of the pipe from 18 mm. to 35 mm. (0 7 in. to 137 in.). 
The springs should simply maintain the valves on their seats. 

There are various methods of regulating the power of the 
motor. One method is to make the amount of petrol spirit con¬ 
veyed to the carburetter proportional to the power to be developed, 
as is done in the new Peugeot carburetter (see p. 97), and as is 
done by aid of a needle-valve in the Goret carburetter; or to 
vary the amount admitted to the suction chamber, as in the 
case of the Brillie distributor (see p. 106). Another method is 
to vary the amount of carburetted mixture admitted into the 
cylinder, as Mors has done. Much more frequently, the power 
is regulated by varying the proportion of air admitted into the 
carburetter to be enriched or, rather, by varying the supplemental 
proportion of pure air added to the mixture to make it 
explosive. However, in the latter case there is a risk of the 
impoverished mixture failing to explode, and to obviate this 
risk compression must be modified in inverse proportion to the 
richness of the mixture. This is the correct idea which Malezieux 
endeavoured to apply by varying the height of the compression 
chamber, the bottom of the cylinder being with this object con¬ 
stituted by a movable piston. In this appliance the piston forms 
the end of a screw which passes through a nut in the end of 
the cylinder, the screw being regulated by means of a hand- 
wheel. An improvement would be to control the device from the 
driver’s seat. 

Hautier modifies compression in a somewhat different manner 
(see pp. 170 to 172). Side by side with these devices, which are 
sometimes combined in the same motor, a real governor can be 


118 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


adopted. In this case a centrifugal force apparatus is alinos, 
always employed to act on the mechanism governing the exhaust 
valve, which then is prevented from opening or . shutting. ie 
gases from the previous explosion remain in the cylinder or mstea 
the cylinder remains open to the outside aii , in ot i case 
carburetted air is not sucked in, and the driving phase or working 
stroke of the cycle is suppressed. Sometimes, however, the regu¬ 
lator acts directly on the admission, so as to choke the inlet 
valve, or rather so as to prevent it opening, as is the case in t 
motors made by Daniel Auge, Lanchester, Le Brun, P. Gautier, 
Dufour (two-stroke cycle), and Yernet (rotary). As a rule, regulators 
are not so often used when tube ignition is employed. Y ith electric 
ignition, the possibility it affords of hastening the moment ot 
ignition may be reckoned on, as will shortly be made clear 
(p. 128). Sometimes cars furnished with regulators also have 
accelerators, an accelerator enabling the driver to fasten the 
regulator and let the motor race for some time, to the detriment 
of its efficiency but to the advantage of the speed. 

Ignition of the explosive mixture is provided by two methods, 
the electric spark and the incandescent tube. Electric ignition 
consists in producing a very hot electric spark, as blue as possible, 
in the midst of the explosive mixture. Usually it is an induction 
spark, sometimes the rupture spark reinforced by the phenomenon 
of self-induction, which is employed. To obtain, the hist, lecourse 
is had to a Ruhmkorff coil, in which the current furnished by a 
primary or secondary battery traverses the primary circuit or coil 
inductor, upon which there is a contact breaker. Interruption ot 
this current, occasioned by the trembler, causes a current in the 
secondary or induced circuit, and if this induced circuit is broken 
there is a spark at the point of interruption. In order that the sparks 
may be emitted only at the requisite moment, normally the primary 
circuit is broken, and only at the moment when compression finishes 
is it closed bv a cam on the shaft which operates the exhaust; this 
shaft, it will be remembered, performs only one revolution whilst the 
motor shaft performs two, and the circuit is closed once every two 
revolutions of the motor, during one phase only of the four. As soon 
as the current is closed the contact breaker acts, and a series of 
sparks breaks out from the sparking club in the explosive mixture, 
which at once ignites. This is the most rational device, and is the 


PETROL MOTORS. 


119 


one employed for the Benz cars ; it has the advantage of employing 
cun ent only at the moment of explosion. In certain Benz cars, 
however, the primary current passes all the time, and the secondary 
cuirent is established without passing through, the sparking plug; then 
the cam delivers it there at the moment when the spark is to be 
produced. De Dion-Bouton, fearing that such devices might not 
always produce the spark at the exact moment for ignition, has 
modified them by removing the contact breaker from the coil, and 
making the motor itself break the circuit and so give the spark. 
The primary current, after passing through the thick wire of the 
coil, reaches the interrupter worked by the motor; at every two 
revolutions of the latter the circuit is made, and immediately broken, 
producing in the secondary circuit the rupture spark which ignites 
the mixture. The electric current runs from its source through the 
coil, the igniter and its plate, which are normally in contact, 
and then returns to the initial point; at the desired moment the 
contact is broken and the spark is emitted. In the three cases 
above noted, by altering the keying angle of the ignition cam on 
the shaft which gives it motion, the production of the spark can 
be hastened or retarded. 

The electricity for energising the igniting device which produces the 
spark is obtained, according to circumstances from a wet or dry primary 
battery, a secondary battery known as an accumulator, a magneto¬ 
electric machine, or a dynamo. Wet batteries cannot be employed 
unless they are sealed up. A somewhat common type of wet battery 
is that of Bassee and Michel, which uses an exciting fluid of chromic 
acid solution. The receptacle is a rectangular parallel pipe made of 
celluloid 3 mm. (0T2 in.) thick, shut by a flat watertight lid. The zinc 
element generally lasts three months, and the chromic acid solution one 
hundred hours of work ; the E.M.F. is 2 volts. The Clarence battery, 
which is very similar to the preceding, is employed, to some extent, 
also. The receptacle of this is made of vulcanite, which, unlike 
celluloid, is not inflammable, and two chimneys in the lid allow the 
gases to escape, whilst at the same time preventing the liquid 
being spilled. A cell of the small type, only containing 900 g. 
(29 oz.) of the exciting liquid, can work 60 hours, the E.M.F. being 
2 25 volts. This high voltage, and the faculty of working at a 
constant discharge of one and even two amperes, are valuable 
advantages of sealed wet batteries, but their capacity is small. 


120 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


Under the influence of endosmosis, which is produced through the 
porous partition separating the two liquids, these last mix some¬ 
what rapidly, and then the battery is unfit for use. Recharging 
is neither cleanly nor convenient, whilst the gas chimneys may 
allow liquid to escape, and the receptacles may be broken, the 
acid spoiling everything it touches. Consequently, dry batteries 
are preferred to wet ones, since it has been noted that the spark 
need not be so hot as was thought, and that ignition may be 
caused by a current at a pressure of 4 to 5 volts, and of one-tenth 
ampere in strength, such as dry batteries can supply. r ihe dry 
battery, strictly speaking, is a battery with fixed liquids. In the 
Bloc battery, which is a modified Leclanche battery, they saturate 
cofferdam—a substance extracted from the exterior fibres of the 
cocoanut. A single cell of this type has an E.M.F. of 16 volt, 
and a very low internal resistance, but its weight and want of 
durability are disadvantages. A lighter and more durable battery 
seems to be the “ iJtoile ” of the Societe le Carbone, which recalls 
very nearly that manufactured by the same company for the de 
Dion-Bouton tricycles. It is very like a Leclanche without the 
zinc rod, the glass vessel being replaced by a metal box. This 
box and a special agglomerate element contained in a canvas bag 
are placed inside the zinc electrode, which forms an outer box, and 
from which they are separated by a layer of sawdust saturated 
with exciting liquid. The cell is closed by a layer of insulating 
material, through which are two small lead tubes for discharge 
gases. The E.M.F. is about 1*6 volt, and the internal resistance is 
slight. The useful capacity of a cell of average size on a resistance 
of 10 ohms is about 60 ampere-hours per kg. (273 ampere- 
hours per lb.) of active material. This battery gives a very regular 
current for a long time, though, like all other batteries, it is 
expensive. 

Accumulators are often preferred, as in these the elementary 
material can be employed again and again, and they have the 
advantage of not offering resistance to the passage of the current 
through the coil; but they also have inconveniences. The}^ dis¬ 
engage acid fumes, and the fall of active matter may cause short 
circuits. Accumulators will be dealt with fully when those em¬ 
ployed for traction are described (see Chapter VIII., p. 209).' 

A dynamo for ignition is employed by Mors, whilst Lufbery, 


PETROL MOTORS. 


121 


and Simms and Bosch use a small magneto-electric machine, 
weighing about 4*5 kg. (9-9 lb.); Duflos-Clairdent- proposes a 
small magneto machine with alternating current, so as to dispense 
with the contact-breaker of the coil. Houpied succeeded in carry¬ 
ing out this idea by mounting on the magneto or dynamo 
shaft a cam driving an interrupter. Needless to say, magnetos 
and dynamos are driven by the motor, and as they only work 
with it, the electricity for starting the motor must be sought for in 
some other source; generally this other source is an accumulator, 
which, when necessary, is recharged by the dynamo. However, 
there are self-sufficient devices, such as that of Houpied, in which 
ignition is started simply by displacing the motor fly-wheel, and 
that of Simms and Bosch. Dynamos and magneto machines 
give a hotter spark than primary batteries and accumulators, and 
consequently are more capable of causing complete combustion of 
a big charge. Knap noted a gain of from 15 kgm. to 25 kgm. 
(108-5 to 181 ft.-lb.) when employing a Houpied apparatus instead of 
a simple accumulator for igniting the charge of a small power motor. 

Coils employed for ignition must be very carefully constructed, 
on account of the vibrations they have to undergo, and for good 
service they must buzz vigorously. Often a coil can be made 
active again simply by rubbing with emery paper the end of the 
bundle of soft iron wires against which the clapper works. A 
large coil consumes less power than a small one, the heat ol the 
spark being proportional to the length of the secondary wiie, 
this detail should be noted, because coils which expend the least 
current are sought for in electric ignition. Noimally, an oidinaiy 
Ruhmkorff coil gives 3 amperes, and Bassee and Michel manu¬ 
facture coils which require only 15 ampere; those of Rossel require 
only five-tenths to seven-tenths ampere per hour. The Peugeot 
firm has employed the Rossel coils, energised by batteries made 
by the Societe le Carbone, these batteries working for 800 to 
1,000 hours. Coils without contact-breakers, it appears, are bettei 
when the motor performs more than 1,500 revolutions per minute, 
and they have always the advantage of reducing current . con¬ 
sumption to a minimum, except, however, when at an untimely 
moment they allow current to pass without any warning; the 
buzz of the contact-breaker is valuable in this respect. The Aster 
motor employs a Rochefort coil. 


122 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


The sparking cam, that is the cam that operates the spark¬ 
ing, is a cylinder made of insulating material, often compressed 
wood fibre ; a metallic conductor connects the cam axis with its 
periphery, and when this conductor touches a metal contact, con¬ 
stantly pressed against the cylinder by a spring, the current 
circulates. The sparking plug is the element from the extremity 
of which the spark issues into the midst of the explosive mixture. 

Essentially, the sparking plug is a wire occupying the centre 
of a porcelain cylinder held by a nut in a metal socket, itself 
forming a screw to fit into the cylinder head. The threads of 
this screw carry a small platinum hook, which is distant 1 mm. 
(0*04 in.) from the end of the wire. The wire from one side and 
the metal bulk of the motor from the other communicate with 
the secondary circuit of the coil, and as the porcelain cylinder 
insulates them one from the other, there is no short circuit 
between them, and the spark is emitted between the end of the 
wire and the platinum hook. The central wire is 1 mm. (0 04 in.) 
less in diameter than the channel in which it is sealed with 
plaster-of-Paris. Frequently it is made of nickel, and then it has 
a bit of platinum brazed on at the sparking end. The non-oxid- 
ability of nickel is a valuable quality for preventing short circuits, 
which are particularly to be feared with the sooting of the plug. 
The term “ sooting ” implies the impregnation of the plug with 
soot, due to combustion of the explosive mixture when carburet- 
ting is bad. This soot penetrates the smallest cracky in the por¬ 
celain, more especially during compression of the mixture. To 
make sooting less frequent, a denser asbestos porcelain has been 
proposed instead of ordinary porcelain. The construction of spark¬ 
ing plugs has been the object of important improvements. Bassee 
and Michel invented a plug that may be taken to pieces. In 
Fig. 85, which shows this plug, A is the socket, a the platinum 
point, C the steel washer to ensure tightening, B tightening nut, 
P porcelain pencil, T T central wire, R copper washer and asbestos' 
D brass cap, mm knurled nuts, n lock nut. The porcelain pencil, 
instead of being sealed in the socket, merely slips into it, mis 
tightness being ensured by an asbestos packing pressed against 
the shoulder P by the nut B. 

The Reclus sparking plug was designed with a view to prevent 
failure of sparking caused by variation in the spacing of the points 


PETROL MOTORS. 


123 


(due particularly to their expansion) and rupture of the porcelain. 
To avoid the first, the central rod terminates with a massive bullet¬ 
shaped end instead of in a point, and this rod is never made 
incandescent, and always allows of the spark being made at any 
point on its circumference. During a journey this spark is emitted 
sufficiently forward in the cylinder to enter the midst of the new 
gases. To avoid breakage, the porcelain is not fixed in a screwed 



Fiff. 85. —Bassee-Michel 

q 

Ignition Plug. 


Fig. 86. —Helical 
Ignition Plug. 


Fig. 87. —Steatite 
Ignition Plug. 


socket, but is fastened in its metal jacket by a special cement 
which prevents all leakage. Porcelain usually breaks, because one 
end is exposed to a great temperature whilst the other is cooled 
by the outer air, the expansion, in consequence, being unequal. 

The Helical ignition plug, according to Baudry de Saunier, is so 
named merely because the wire of the secondary current is. not 
fastened to it by a screw in the ordinary way, but first passes, twisted 
into a little ring, in the turns of a coil placed at the top (see the 
section Fio- 80) The advantage is that the porcelain is not broken 
when a clumsy attendant exerts too great a twist upon the nut m 
tightening up the wire. The usual detect ol the central spindle 




























































































124 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


getting too liot and its expansion causing the breakage of the porce¬ 
lain is got over by this method of fastening the secondary wire. The 
central spindle is fixed to the porcelain in one place only (see Fig. 86), 
and so is free to expand; and the common defect of one end of the 
porcelain being hot whilst the other is cold is done away with by 
making the porcelain in two pieces, separated by a non-conducting 
wad; difference of temperature then does not cause fracture. 

In the Steatite ignition plug made by Fremy andMare, soapstone 
or steatite replaces porcelain ; it is easily machined in its natural 
state, is very hard and strong after baking, and has a high 
insulating value, whilst it does not appear to be so brittle as ordinary 
porcelain. The construction of the plug is shown by the section 
Fig. 87, in which A is a steel plug which screws into the cylinder wall 
and is fitted with a bridge piece across its inner end, the bridge 
carrying a contact piece at its centre. A block of steatite G fits 
inside the plug A, being held by screwed cap B, which forces the 
ground-in shoulder of the steatite to make a tight joint with the 
metal plug. The bore of the steatite is in two different diameters, 
and a brass rod C passes through it from the one end, where a steel top 
E is screwed to it, to the other end, where a brass cap H screws over 
it and holds it rigidly to the steatite. Inside the larger hole 
in the steatite a glass tube F surrounds the rod C. A milled 
nut D attaches a conducting wire to the insulated rod. • The 
absence of packing in the joints between the metal and insulator 
is an advantage, and the plug may be recommended. In fitting it to 
small de Dion-Bouton motors, however, the bridge piece carrying the 
contact is liable to foul the induction and exhaust valves, unless 
when screwing the plug into the cylinder the joint is packed so that 
the bridge lies parallel with the valve heads; but perhaps the makers 
have already given attention to this slight defect. 

. Tlie G- Richard plug, Fig. 88, is designed to overcome certain defects 
existing in the ordinary types; in these under the influence of the 
high temperature the cement fixing the rod to the porcelain deterio¬ 
rates, or if, instead of cement, screws are used the difference in the 
expansions of the rod and the porcelain tube causes the joints to be 
altered in such a way that a current of gas or air sufficient to extin¬ 
guish the spark may be produced around the rod. In the G. Richard 
plug, shown in section by Fig. 89, A is the porcelain tube enclosing 
the metal rod B, at whose end is a head C, separated from the end 


PETROL MOTORS. 


125 


of the porcelain tube by a copper washer a; the little rod b is con¬ 
nected to the mass of the motor. At the other end of the porcelain 
is an asbestos washer c, over which is a copper washer d, pressed 
against b}^ a spring R According to usual practice, the rod B has its 
end threaded to receive the nut D, by means of which the rod B is 
held firmly in the porcelain tube ; D receives the electric conductor e, 
which is held by the thumbscrew /. Owing to the spring R, com¬ 
pressed by nut D, the head C is pressed firmly against the tube A, 



and there also is a tight joint at the other end between c, d, and A. 
Thus a good joint is formed, which does not allow the passage of gas 
or air when the parts expand, the difference in expansion being met 
by the action of the spring. 

The Peugeot ignition plug, shown in section by Fig. 90, has its 
construction based on the fact that carbon deposits do not tend to 
form inside small cavities in the combustion chamber ; it will be 
noticed from Fig. 90 that the insulating surface inside the com¬ 
bustion chamber is considerable, and is placed in a deep cavity. The 
conducting wire cc passes through the porcelain a a, and is bent 
over to form the sparking point d. The porcelain has a collar b b, 



































































126 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


and is held inside the metallic portion of the plug by means of a 
screwed cap and insulating packing. The porcelain itself does not 
touch either of the outside metal parts at any point, and it projects 
some distance into the larger portion of the cavity. Between the 
porcelain and the metal plug in the smaller part of the cavity the 
distance is about 2 mm. by 20 mm. (0‘078 in. by 0’78 in.). 

In the system of ignition by incandescent tubes and burners, 
a small hollow tube is placed on the bottom of the explosion chamber* 



g . 91.— Longuemare Burner 
for Ignition Tubes. 


Aftei the exhaust a certainq uantity of burnt gases remains on tho 
bottom and in the tube itself. After admission of the new gases, 
and during compression, the mixing of the two kinds of o-as is 
slight, and the explosive mixture does not come into contact with 
the tube. It is only when compression is at its maximum, and 
the inert gases are driven to the end of the chamber, that the gas 
reaches it, and the explosion occurs. By pushing in the tube more 
or less the motor can be regulated for various degrees of com¬ 
pression. Sometimes the tube is made of porcelain or nickel but 
generally it is of platinum, which does not oxidise or alter, its 
, shape in the fire, and has the valuable quality, when once made 













































































PETROL MOTORS. 


127 


igcI hot, of remaining incandescent in contact with hydrocarbons. 
These advantages discount its high price, from which, besides, the 
sale price of old tubes must be deducted. Nickel is one-fifteenth 
the cost of platinum, but lasts only three or four months. The 
ignition tube is fixed on the cylinder by means of a little collar 
tightened against a tube holder, screwed in the breech by a cap 
nut, the bottom of which is furnished with asbestos washers. Owing 
to being carbonised, these washers must frequently be tightened 
and reqfiaced. The Leon Bollee firm has introduced a 
new joint without asbestos, which is thought to be very 
good. 

The burners which heat the ignition tubes to in¬ 
candescence and maintain them so are of various types. 

It may be useful, in order at a given moment to accelerate 
their combustion, to furnish them with a tube and an 
indiarubber pear or ball to blow air into them. Some¬ 
times the tube is wrapped round with a nickel wire 0‘5 
mm. (0‘02 in.) in diameter to keep its temperature high 
enough to relight the burner when suddenly extinguished. 

The Longuemare burner (Fig. 91) is well known; it is 
started by igniting the alcohol, of which the cups H are 
about one-third full. The pressure of compressed air 
admitted by pipe K into the petrol spirit tank L should 
be about 1 kg. per cm. 2 (14*2 lb. per sq. in.). Burners G 
have each a blow pipe with platinum tube. Sufficient air 
for burning the petrol spirit is drawn in automatically. 
Incandescence is regulated by taps F, which have an 
asbestos stuffing box I; a temperature of about 1,300 C. can be 
attained. The tank L, about 8 cm. (3 in.) in diameter and 30 cm. 
(12 in.) long, has a filling plug A, pressure gauge E, and emptying 
plug D, contains nearly 1 1. (1*76 pt.) of petrol spirit, and can feed 
through J two burners for eight hours. Air enters cylinder L through 
cock B and tube T. B is a gauge-cock. A new burner, introduced 
by Madame Vve. Longuemare, only needs a slight pressure for work. 
A stroke of the pump P, and a slight heating of the tube suffice 
to start it working, there being no need of an alcohol cup. 

In the Bollee burner, Fig. 92, the tube a , which supports the 
whole, has inside it a cotton wick reaching not quite to the top, 
where there is a cap pierced with a very small hole and surrounded 



Fig. 92.— 
Bollee 
Burner. 
































128 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


by a perforated sleeve. The burner is started by external heating. 
On the inlet tube e for the petrol spirit there is an air bell which 
impedes movement in the column of liquid during motion of the 
carriage. 

A comparison of electric and incandescent tube ignition shows 
the advantages of electric ignition to be as follow. Its starting is 
instantaneous, and if ignition is at a minimum advance, cannot be 
accompanied by an adverse explosion produced before the piston 
finishes its compression stroke. Extinction is also instantaneous, 
and it is possible to put on the brake by compressing the cylinder 
charge which for the purpose is prevented from exploding. Owing 
to the absence of burners, there is less danger of fire. There is 
surer ignition when the spark issues well into the mixture. Even 
if compression is slight, still the motor works, and consequently 
the car can be run at a slow rate of speed, whereas with burners 
if the compression is so slight as not to bring the new gases into 
contact with the tube, running is impossible. It makes it possible 
for the moment of ignition to be advanced when such is desirable 
to suit different conditions with regard to the carburetted mixture. 
Transmission of the combustion in the carburetted mixture is not 
so rapid as might be thought: if ignition occurs at the moment 
when the piston is at the extreme point of its stroke, that is when 
the crank pin is at the dead point, combustion when the mixture 
is too rich has not time to be complete, and the total ex 23 ansive 
power of the mixture is not obtained in useful work. It is better, 
then, for ignition to occur a little before the end of the compression 
stroke. The sparking cam is arranged so that with a minimum 
advance the spark occurs just before the end of compression; with 
a maximum advance the spark is not given before the commence¬ 
ment of the second half of the compression stroke. The influence 
of this advance is well illustrated by the de Dion-Bouton tricycle, 
in which it is shown that good working can be obtained with 
electric ignition. Irregularity is due mainly to short circuits in 
the battery, accumulator, or conductors, rupture of a wire, or failure 
of the contact-breaker. Other inconveniences are expense, and the 
weight and bulk of the necessary apparatus. 

Ignition by incandescent tube is rightly considered as less 
delicate but surer than electric ignition. The fuel for the burners 
is petrol spirit as consumed by the motor, and so there is Hot any 


PETROL MOTORS. 


129 


separate source of energy to be maintained. Some drivers, how- 
evei, cany a separate supply for the burners. Tube ignition makes 
it possible before starting to heat the air for the carburetter, a 
valuable advantage in winter, and these are all valuable qualities. 
No doubt extinction of the flame and consequent failure of the 
ignition are not impossible, but a long test shows these incidents to 
be rare. Consequently the addition proposed by Clement and Michaux 
must be. considered useless. Their device produced a series of 
electric sparks inside the burner to keep it alight in spite of wind. 
The necessary dynamo employed by these inventors would cause a 
complication out of all proportion with the result to be obtained. 
Besides the possibility of extinction and the length of time (some 
minutes) required for starting, tube ignition may be said to have the 
following inconveniences. Tubes heat the cylinder, whilst the 
constant endeavour is to keep it cool with water; if the cylinder is 
air cooled simply by aid of wings, the heat of the burners is 
prohibitive and electric ignition must be adopted. Burners are a 
source of danger of fire. Baudry de Saunier mentions, in particular, 
that the petrol spirit may, at the instant when the burners are 
ignited, enter them too quickly, and if the burners are not hot 
enough to vaporise it, the spirit may burn and perhaps set the 
car alight, this being the case especially with pressure burners. 
It is possible for tubes to explode the new gas at the wrong 
moment, whilst the piston is moving backwards to compress the 
mixture; then the piston is driven violently forwards, giving all 
the mechanism a shock which may endanger the driver. The 
burners consume and thus waste fuel during stoppages, this being 
particularly inconvenient in the case of cabs on public service. 
With these last, electric ignition seems to be essential, and prefer¬ 
ably the rupture spark is employed, this alone being strong enough 
to burn off the oil and carbonaceous dust which is deposited on 
the sparking plugs when the work of the cylinders is only inter¬ 
mittent, but the rupture spark generally necessitates the employ¬ 
ment of a dynamo. In such circumstances Forestier asks whether, 
since with a dynamo it is possible to heat the carburetter electric¬ 
ally, it would not be well to employ petroleum, which is cheaper 
than petrol spirit, to drive the public cabs. 

Methods of ignition other than the electric spark and incan¬ 
descent tube have been tried. The Gans de Fabrice igniter is an 

j 


130 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


imitation of Paquelin’s thermo-cautery, which consists of a tube 
of spongy platinum, on the inside of which a mixture of hydro¬ 
carbon vapour and air is blown constantly. This igniter gives a 
very high temperature, which was brought accidentally to notice 
in some experiments by the platinum melting, where feeding was 
continued too long. Dr. Gans de Fabrice concluded from his 
studies on petrol motors that there is a somewhat close relation¬ 
ship between the explosive force of the mixture and the tem¬ 
perature of the body producing it, and that for this reason his 
igniter should give better results than tubes or electricity, the 
temperature being higher than either. He considers that the motor 
efficiency would be increased by from 30 to 50 per cent., which, 
however, seems impossible; and at any rate his igniter has not 
been tested on an automobile, it is thought. 

\\ ydt s electro-catalytic ignition device is a recent invention 
embodying a simple principle. The igniter consists of a fine spiral 
of osmium wire (C, b ig. 94) mounted at the end of a plunger which 
is capable of movement inside the sleeve K (Fig. 93). This sleeve, by 
means of the threaded end A, screws into the motor cylinder. The 
plunger is of insulating material, and carries a central conductor, 
ending in a binding screw P, there being another such screw at B. 
I he ends of the osmium spiral, C, are connected to the central 
conductor in the plunger and make contact with the inside of 
sleeve K ; thus when the battery current is switched on the osmium 
wire is heated to incandescence, causing the ignition of the charge in 
the motor cylinder combustion chamber with which A is in 
communication. This suffices for starting the motor, but after a 
few explosions have taken place the current is switched off, and the 
osmium wire continues to glow owing to the action of the combustible 
gases. The lever L enables the position of the plunger, and con¬ 
sequently that of C, to be varied, it being pushed in or out against 
the action of the spiral spring D. By this means the instant at which 
ignition takes place may be advanced or retarded, since when the 

plunger is withdrawn a longer cushion of burnt gases intervenes 

between the charge and the igniting wire. When the plunger is 

brought far enough back to disclose port E, cold air enters on 

the induction stroke and cools the osmium wire and stops the motor, 
thus providing a ready means of bringing the motor to rest. 

Ihe Bernardi system of ignition is based on the catalytic property 


PETROL MOTORS. 


131 


of platinum.; this metal becomes incandescent when dipped in a 
mixture of air and combustible gas. Instead, however, of employ¬ 
ing spongy platinum, which is very delicate, and requires a bright 
red temperature to ignite with certainty a compressed explosive 
mixture, Bernardi employs a platinum wire tissue, which ignites at 
dark red heat, that is at about 250 C. Menard employs a bundle 
of platinum or nickel wires, which can be pushed to various depths 
in the cylinder, so as to regulate the time of ignition. 

Sometimes the mere work of compression, after the motor has 
been started, is employed to maintain the temperature of an ignition 



•Wvdt’s Electro-catalytic Igniter. Fig 
Wydt’s Igniter. 


P 


tube sufficiently high to cause explosion of the charge, thus rendering 
ignition automatic. Banki and Csonka, Latapie de Gerval, and 
Southall proposed devices having this principle. Practical devices 
of this nature are in use by the Societe des Moteurs Benz, and 
by Loyal. In Loyal’s two-cycle motors, at starting the nickel tube 
is heated by a Longuemare petrol lamp. Banki and Csonka recom¬ 
mend heating the new gases by running them through a worm 
bathed by the exhaust gases, but most of the automatic systems 
of ignition can dispense with this precaution. The Diesel motor 
has automatic ignition, and as it compresses only pure air, in this 
case the process is not attended by the risk of premature explosion, 
which in some other cases may be very serious. 

The cylinders of petrol motors will now be considered. Generally 
two cylinders are employed, though for a small power motor a 
J 2 






























































132 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


single one will suffice; sometimes, however, three or four cylinders 
are combined, as in the Mors motor. They may be vertical, 
horizontal, or inclined; this last position was adopted in the 
primitive Daimler, where the two cylinders were placed, one on 
each side, at 15 from the vertical, and it was invented to regularise 
the action of the motor by preventing the times of the dead 
points from being the same in both of the pistons. It was abandoned, 
as it complicated construction without really profiting the regulation, 
which is assured sufficiently by the momentum of the fly-wheel. 
The advantage of horizontal cylinders is that during running their 
vibrations agree with the motion of the car, though there is the 
inconvenience, especially on a steep gradient, of the start being too 
sudden. The great defect of these cylinders, however, is that they 
become oval, and require reboring. Vertical cylinders are free 
from this last defect, but their vibrations are in a direction which 
does not agree with the movement of the running vehicle. Cylinders 
are of steel or soft cast-iron; steel cylinders range in thickness from 
2 mm. to 3 5 mm. (0'08 in. to 0T4 m.) for motors of from 65 mm. 
to 90 mm. (2*5 in. to 3 5 in.) bore, whilst for the same conditions 
cast-iron cylinders have a thickness of from 4 mm. to 6 mm (016 in. 
to 0-24 in.). 

The cooling of cylinders is a most important subject. The 
temperature of the charge during explosion is very great, Witz 
estimating it at not less than 2,000° C. No doubt the temperature 
is decreased very soon by expansion of the gas, but even lessened 
in this manner it would have disastrous effects, unless special 
provision weie made. Without some system of cooling the cylinder 
it would be impossible to ensure lubrication of the cylinders, because 
the most heat-resisting oils are decomposed at 300° C., and above 
that produce detrimental carbonaceous deposits which interfere with 
the working of the valves and of the motor in general. Very 
great and unequal degrees of expansion in the carefully-adjusted 
parts of the cylinder and piston would impede working. Wedding 
of the piston, seizing of the connecting rod and crank, might be 
feared, and the valves, especially the exhaust, put out of working 
order (two hours’ work at too high a temperature suffices to cause 
this). To avoid all this, some system of cooling is necessary, 
and the necessity of this, it can be understood, is a source of con¬ 
siderable waste of energy, represented by the heat units' of the 


PETROL MOTORS. 


133 


fuel, and it constitutes one of the grave defects ot existing petrol 
motors. Consequently cooling must be accomplished only in the 
least possible degree, though this last has not been determined 
precisely. As a rule, cooling is not excessive in automobile motors, 
because the renewal of the water used for the purpose is shirked 
as much as possible. 

To accomplish the cooling of petrol motor cylinders, generally 
a current ot water is circulated around the explosion chamber, 
the valve boxes, or even all the cylinder. The water is kept 
in motion by aid of a special pump or merely by the differences 
of density produced in itself; thus there is the great inconvenience 
of frequently renewing the water in the tank, especially during 
summer. To prevent too rapid heating of the water, it is run 
through pipes or coils, between which a rapid current of fresh 
air is driven by the motion of the car. P. Royer has proposed 
to replace the leather or wooden mud-guards of cars by flanged 
tubes in which the water could circulate and be cooled. J. 
Dupont employs a special vessel furnished with flanges. Lepape 
has tested a number of systems of cooling the water, particularly 
that in which the water, after it has flowed around the cylinders 
and carburetter, ascends to the top part of the cistern and then 
falls in rain on four inclined sheet-iron planes, a current of air 
there blowing through the liquid spray and separating the steam. 
Lepape also has tested a system in which is used sail cloth like 
that employed by firemen to make their buckets. In his opinion 
the permeability of this material has the double advantage of 
increasing the liquid’s surface of contact with the surrounding 
air and of allowing the steam to separate from the liquid. The 
process of cooling the water, almost universally employed, con¬ 
sists in running the water through straight tubes between two 
collectors for entrance and exit of the water, partitioned in such 
a manner that it flows through the pipes in series or in a worm 
at several levels. These tubes or radiators have flanges, which 
increase their surface of contact with the air which cools them. 
One of the most common types is that of Grouvelle and Arquem- 
bourg, who employ tubes having a bore of 15 mm. (06 in.) for 
motors of less than 8 h.p., and tubes of 18 mm. (0 7 in.) foi 
motors of greater power; the tubes are of copper and have iron 
or aluminium rectangular flanges, 35 mm. x 45 mm. (1 4 in. x 


134 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


1*8), jointed or soldered to them, these flanges being from 60 mm. 
to 70 mm. (2*4 in. to 2*8 in.) apart. It is estimated that 2 m. 
(6*5 ft.) of tube, 15 mm. (0*6 in.) diameter, or 1*35 m. (4*5 ft.) of 
tube of 18 mm. (0*7 in.) diameter, are required per h.p. These 
tubes weigh, per metre (39*4 in.), the first 875 g. (31 oz.), with 
aluminium flanges, and 1*275 kg. (45 oz.) with iron; the second 
1*22 kg. (43 oz.), and 1*820 kg. (64 oz.) respectively. From these 
figures it can be seen that the weight of a radiator cannot be 
neglected; cost also is considerable, this amounting to about 8s. 
per metre of 15 mm. (0*6 in.) tube fitted with iron flanges (about 
2s. 7d. per ft.). However, the distance a car can run without re¬ 
quiring cold water can be greatly increased, provided there is a 
good draught of air, by employing a well-arranged cooler, that is 
to say, one with flanges parallel to the longitudinal axis of the 
car. This distance may be reckoned as 200 km. (124 miles), at 
an average speed of not more than 20 km. (12*4 miles) per 
hour; this is a ten-hour run, but it is well to obtain new supplies 
of water of’tener if possible. Loyal gives the flanges a corrugated 
form, so that their surface contact with the surrounding air is 

increased, as is also their rigidity. According to Julien, in tubes 

of circular section, contact of the inner side with the central 
veins of water is difficult. For radiators he adopts fiat flangeless 
tubes, having round ends, to facilitate joining with the ..collectors 
or pipes, and he makes the logical proposal to fix a series of 

tubes, branching from the motor cylinder, and parallel with it, so 

that the water in this jacket may cool in passing through these 
tubes. Julien also constructs a cooler, formed by a water-tube 
of wide and very flat rectangular section coiled in worm form, 
the narrower the tube the greater being the number of the coils. 
The tube is placed on the car with its mouth in front, so that an 
abundance of air can enter between the coils and escape through 
two lateral orifices. 

The use of a pump may be necessary to make the water flow in the 
radiators. Though the alternating pump is not without precedent 
the rotary pump is usually adopted, especially the centrifugal, which 
needs no valves and has very simple mechanism. Grouvelle and 
Arquembourg construct a pump 125 mm. (4*9 in.) in diameter, the 
entrance and exit orifices being 15 mm. (0*6 in.), weighing L8 kg. 
(4 lb.), and making 1,500 and 2,800 revolutions per minute. ’ Dalifol 


PETROL MOTORS. 


135 


and Thomas construct the Abeille pump, which normally revolves 
at the rate of 1,500 revolutions per minute, and can be inspected 
without touching the piping by simply unscrewing a plate fastened 
with four bolts. Benoit and Julien employ a cast-iron cylindrical 
body closed by two plates, inside which revolves a cast-iron screw 
having two opposite threads separated by vertical partition; the 
water arrives at the exterior of each thread, travels towards the 
central partition, and leaves the pump perpendicularly to its axis. 
Normally it works under pressure, but once primed it can suck 
water from a depth of 60 cm. (24 in.); it weighs 35 kg. (7 - 7 lb.), 
and with a velocity of 2,000 to 2,400 revolutions it delivers at a 
height of 1 m. (39*4 in.) from 500 1. to 600 1. (110 gal. to 132 gal.). 

The inconveniences which would result from not cooling the 
cylinders have been mentioned, and it may be remarked that 
sudden cooling (caused, for example, by admitting too much cold 
water into the pipes during the journey) would not be advan¬ 
tageous either. It would cause condensation in the cylinders, and 
the petrol spirit now in liquid form would till the ignition tubes, 
so as to prevent the new gases from coming into contact with 
them, or cause short circuits in the sparking plug; in both cases 
the motor would cease to work. It might also cause the cylinder 
joints to break or the cylinder to crack, and in both cases water would 
be allowed to enter the cylinder. Flow of water cannot take place 
around the cylinder without the deposit on the walls ot the jacket 
of calcareous substances which decrease the conductivity of the metal. 
It must be possible to frequently clean the insides of the cylinders, 
and so the jacket must be easily removed. In spite of all these 
preparations the employment of water is very inconvenient, and 
fortunately can be dispensed with on small motors. I here is also 
the great disadvantage in winter of the water readily freezing when 
left in a stationary car, unless about 20 per cent, of glycerine is added. 

Small air-cooled motors are simply provided with flanges 
intended to conduct the heat to the atmosphere. The flanges are 
generally made of iron cast solid with the cylinder, but Moreau 
employs copper flanges, forced around the cylinder. In the I apillon 
motor the cylinder is surrounded by regular hoops of copper, which 
has more effect than iron owing to its conductivity being greater. 
In the Aster motor the copper flanges are corrugated, so as to 
increase their contact surface. Grivel experimented with aluminium 


136 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


flanges wound spirally around the cylinder. Bearing in mind that 
the radiating power of a body varies with the nature of its surface 
(a polished metal having a radiating power equal to 12 acquires 
an equivalency of 100 when coated with lamp black), Hnber- 
Baudry has shown the advantage of painting petrol motor cylinders 
black or white; and there is something perhaps to be accom¬ 
plished in this direction. However, it must be remembered that 
sui faces which radiate heat most readily also absorb it as readily. 

ith adjacent flanges it is perhaps to be feared that the heat 
given off by one will be absorbed by its neighbour. Then again 
as tar as can be judged from the necessity of renewing air around 
«y nd .01 j it is mainly by conductivity that cooling takes place, 
and so in rendering the surface of the motor rougher the paint 
must not interfere with this circulation. Preference must be given 
to the Sire process, by which the cylinder parts are given an 
electrotype coating of unpolished copper, the greater the need of 
cooling the thicker being the copper. The copper will acquire a 
higher temperature than the lamp black, and the heat will be so 
much the better diffused, as the surface of the cylinder is at a 
greater temperature than the surrounding air. 

Various methods of cooling have been proposed by Desjacques, 
Klaus, Lepape, Lanchester, Diligeon, Dufour, and Goret. G. 
Desjacques proposes that small holes be made in the wall of the 
cylinder parallel to its bore, so as to form passages through which 
the air can circulate close to the parts to be cooled. Klaus makes 
the exhaust gases act on the flanges, so as to cause a stronger 
draught of air around them, but it would be better, it seems to 
keep them out of contact with these gases, which at leaving ’the 
silencer are stdl very hot, and to employ them to produce a current 
ot fresh air around these flanges, as suggested by an inventor who 
made a hehcoidal groove in the cylinder jacket. Lepape has adopted 
this device in some of bis cars, the vertical motor placed in the 
front being enclosed in a casting in which the exhaust gases produced 
a draught of fresh air. Usually these gases have a pressure of 
from 3 kg. to 4 kg. per cm.* (43 lb. to 57 lb. per sq. in.), and it is 
evident that such a pressure can.be taken advantage of. F. Lanchester 
recommends the device shown by Fig. 95; the motor cylinder C 
formed by a steel tube, is strengthened by hoops B, leaving between 
them a sufficient space for the circulation of air; hoops and cylinders 


PETROL MOTORS. 


137 


are surrounded by a sheet-iron jacket. An air inlet A communicates 
with a space in which the motor fly-wheel, furnished with paddles, 
woiks the centrifugal fan, to drive a constantly-renewed current of 
air into contact with the cylinder and hoops. The air exit D is 
furnished with a rotary valve, automatically regulated, which drives 
the an to the carburetter, whose action thereby is accelerated. 
Diligeon has employed a similar device in his cars. Dufois, in his two- 
stioke cycle motor, uses a pump worked by levers and a cam mounted 
on the . shaft governing the exhaust ; the pump sends water to 
the inside of the cylinder itself, where the action of the water is 
more effective than around the outside of 
the cylinder; but it is a question whether 
water can be collected and again employed, 
and whether the results compensate for the 
complication of the system. In the Goret 
six-stroke cycle motor a draught of pure air 
is created in the cylinder after each ex¬ 
plosion, and this fresh air cools the 
cylinder. 

The Yilain method of cooling motor 
cylinders acts on the thermo-syphon 
system. A coil of copper tubing mounted 
above the top of the motor cylinder has 
its ends connected to the top and bottom 
of the cylinder jacket, the tubing forming 
a closed circuit, no reservoir beinsf 

o 

necessary. If the copper tubing has a radiating surface of ten times 
the surface of the cylinder walls, its radiating power when standing 
still is calculated to keep the temperature of the jacket at 128° C. 
(262° F.). A safety valve is fitted, and there is no evaporation, the 
water lasting indefinitely. About 4‘5 1. (1 gal.) of water is carried. 

The pistons of petrol motor cylinders do not have rods, and 
are very long, so as to be self-guiding; sometimes they are prolonged 
by a hollow sleeve. They must be light, as heavy pistons more 
readily wear away the lower part of horizontal cylinders. Pistons 
are made of malleable cast-iron, and have grooves in which, to 
ensure tight fit, are lodged segments, these being rings of copper, 
malleable iron, or, better still, of ordinary cast-iron, a little greater 
in diameter than the cylinder, and as weak as possible, so as to 



of Cooling Cylinder. 
















138 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


be pliant. The segments should quite fill the width of the grooves, 
without, however, being tight, because this would destroy their 
elasticity; they should have a play of 1 mm. (004 in.) in the depth, 
so that they act as springs. To avoid the necessity ol lubrication 
and cooling, Michelen proposes to lessen the friction of the piston 
by furnishing the latter with circular gullets separated by pro¬ 
jecting parts slightly less in diameter than the cylinder. This piston 
would give so much greater tightness as it moved quicker, but it 
would have to be guided, as it would not touch the cylinder. 

The connecting rod fixed direct to the piston works by its other 
end the motor crank shaft. It is usually attached to the piston 
by a pin which runs right through it, and is enclosed by the eye 
of the rod. Roser and Mazurier fixed the connecting rod to the 
piston by a ball and socket joint, which -gives a greater surface 
of friction and but little wear, play being suppressed. In all 
cases the adjustment and lubrication must be perfect, so as to 
avoid seizing. The quicker the motor works the lighter must be 
the connecting rods. 

To start a petrol motor, the piston is worked for a few strokes 
by means of a hand crank. With this object some cars are provided 
with a device to open the exhaust valve, to prevent compression 
of the gases found in the motor when at rest. The hand crank, 
when required, is fitted on an auxiliary shaft at the back of the 
car, and so when the motor is once stopped the driver must leave 
his seat to start it again. This inconvenience is not great, because 
stoppage of the car is not followed necessarily by that of the motor, 
except when so required. Consequently, it is possible that com¬ 
plicated mechanism to enable the driver to start the motor from 
his seat may be found to be useless. However, gear which can 
be started from the seat affords facility for preventing vibrations 
whilst stopping, and some cars with small power motors, amongst 
them the Decauville voiturette, are so provided. 

Noise and odour emitted by petrol motors imply superfluous 
vibrations, defective combustion, and consequent waste of energy. 
On these two points petrol motors are deficient. Later, the question 
of vibration will be returned to, and for the moment attention will be 
given to the noise caused by the escape of burnt gases and to their odour. 
To decrease noise and, in consequence, dust, which would be raised 
by the jets of gas if they were free to come into contact'with the 


PETROL MOTORS. 


139 


ground, the burnt gases, on leaving the cylinder, are conveyed to 
an exhaust box or silencer, generally formed by a horizontal 
cylinder communicating with the outer air by a tube finely per¬ 
forated. The gaseous mixture expands in the silencer and escapes 
in thin streams through the holes. To effectually deaden the 
noise the silencer must be large, and the perforations must be 
small and many; it may be that two or three silencers in suc¬ 
cession are necessary. Evidently all this somewhat decreases the 


power of the motor, which must overcome a pressure greater than 
that of the atmosphere to force the gases into the exhaust box. 
Still, the silencer should not be done without, as is the custom of 
some drivers who do not form a correct idea of the fright that 
the noise of the motors may give horses. As a rule, nothing is 
done to decrease the odour of the exhaust, though an ap¬ 
pliance has been suggested by Chevalet, and this diminishes simul¬ 
taneously odour and noise. It should be mounted next to the 
exhaust box or simply on the cylinder discharge pipe. It consists 
of some ring scrubbers, similar to those employed in gas works, 
furnished inside with a cast iron plate perforated with holes and 
filled with shavings of wood, or, better, of iron. These superposed 
rings are wetted with water, or, better, with odourless oil, to 
arrest the unburnt oil or spirit which is the cause of the odour in 
exhaust gas. This oil, it seems, can be employed for lubrication 
when the impurities have been removed either by decantation or 
filtration. 

To be complete, there remains to be explained the consumption 
of fuel by petrol motors, but there have not been any systematic 
experiments to throw light on this subject. The figures given by 
makers, without mentioning the quality of the petrol spirit em¬ 
ployed and the conditions in which the motor worked, are not 
comparable one with another. But still some figures will be found 
later in this work. For the moment, it may be stated merely 


that the consumption of petrol spirit per horse-power hour may 
vary from 045 1. to 0'9 1. (from 0’8 pt. to T6 pt.). Hitherto 
endeavours have been directed principally to construct simple 
motors, capable of working reliably, and but little consideration 
has been given to the consumption of fuel; but as construction 
is improved more attention will be given to economy. 


140 


CHAPTER VII. 

TYPICAL PETROL MOTORS DESCRIBED. 

The various constituent parts of petrol motors having been 
dealt with in detail, it will be easy to describe in a few words 
any of the various types. A complete review of all types is 
impossible, as they are legion, and new ones appear constantly; 
but by describing a few types a general idea of all will be imparted. 
The first to be described is the Gottlieb Daimler motor, which opened 
the way for all the others, though it is no longer employed in its 
primitive form. As early as 1885 it was applied to the bicycle, 
and in 1886 to cars. Until 1889 it was made with one cylinder 
only, bj an( b 2 h.p., but subsequently two cylinders were adopted 
tor 1, 2, and 4 h.p. motors. The second of these motors, shown 
by Figs. 96 and 97, is the only one here described. The cylinders 
A A 1 are inclined and converge towards the motor-shaft C C 1 housed 
in a cylindrical frame B, which is loosely connected with the 
cylinder bases and contains two crank-plates D Dk Adjnission to 
each cylinder is operated by an automatic valve K, contained in a 
box L, which also encloses the exhaust valve M.. The explosive 
mixture, prepared in a bubbling carburetter with constant level, 
enters the cylinder by the pipe 0, which also serves as a 
discharge for the burnt gases by the valve M being opened at the 
correct time by rod Q, the lower part of which carries a roller r 
which runs in a groove s made in one of the crank-plates. 
This groove runs twice round the motor-shaft before returning to 
its initial point; so that rod Q acts on the valve only once every 
ev utions. Ignition is operated by the tubes N. Suppose 
that piston A is in the period of work, and the other, A 1 , in that 
of admission, they return together compressing the air. At the 
end of this stroke the central valve H of the piston A 1 , which 
has sucked in the explosive mixture, rises on coming into contact 
with fork I and allows a charge of compressed air to enter the 
corresponding cylinder, the air rendering the mixture inflammable. 


TYPICAL PETROL MOTORS DESCRIBED. 


141 


In the othei cylinder, the exhaust valve, under the action of rod 
Q and central valve H, acted upon by fork I, has opened at 
the end of the throw so that a charge of compressed pure air enters 
this cylinder driving before it the products of combustion, which 
escape through a bent tube connected with box L. When the 



Figs. 96 and 97. —Sections of Daimler Petrol Motor. 


pistons make their outward stroke pressure decreases | in the 
frame, so that valve J opens to admit a fresh supply of pure 
air; during this time piston A 1 compresses the two juxtaposed 
charges of carburetted mixture and air, and piston A drives the 
two layers of pure air and burnt gases into the atmosphere. At 
the instant when the pistons reach the end of their outward stroke 
there remains nothing but pure air in the compression chamber 
of cylinder A to form a new explosive mixture, whilst in A an 
















































































142 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


explosion happens which drives all the system forward. Regula¬ 
tion is obtained by completely cutting off the supply of the 
mixture. When the motor exceeds the normal speed the governor 
S, housed in the pulley T, brings near the cylinders the upper 
branch of the hinged-balance beam U, terminated by the catch 
U 1 . When rod Q rises to open the exhaust valve this catch 
comes into contact with the horizontal arm R 1 of a square hinged 
at t, so that arm R of the latter, being moved from the vertical, 
does not touch the rod i of the exhaust valve, which conse¬ 
quently remains shut. The presence of burnt gases in the cylinder 
prevents rising of the inlet valve and entrance of a new charge 
of carburetted gases. The cylinder is cooled by a draught of air 
produced by a pump. Starting is accomplished by turning a crank 
on the end C 1 of the motor-shaft, the said crank being disengaged 
when the motor is working. This two-cylinder Daimler motor per¬ 
formed 450, 500, or 700 revolutions per minute, with power of 1, 
2, and 4 h.p. respectively. Consumption was IT. (T76 pt.) of 
petrol spirit per hour on the Panhard and Levassor phaeton (type 
1891), running at the rate of 13 km. (8 miles) per hour; lubrica¬ 
tion was then estimated at 0*24d. per hour. A motor of this 
type has not been built to give a greater power than 4 h.p., because it 
would be too heavy. The Daimler latest motor differs greatly from this. 

The instantaneous ignition of the charge in the combustion 
chamber was the object of perhaps the last improvement made in his 
motor by Daimler, who sought to prevent the poles of the igniter 
becoming covered with a carbon deposit which constitutes a partial 
short circuit, resulting in a small and feeble current or none at all. 
Daimler’s method is to place the electrodes or poles of the ignition 
device in a chamber separate from the combustion chamber, as shown 
in Fig. 98, which represents a vertical section of a motor cylinder. In 
this figure A is the main combustion chamber, having an inlet valve 
V, and an outlet valve P, and connected by means of a small passage 
C to an auxiliary chamber B, in which the ignition takes place in the 
usual way, D being the apparatus for the purpose. Supposing the 
chamber A be filled with gaseous mixture, a small quantity of this 
passes through the passage C, and enters B ; having been ignited, the 
gas is expelled from B and re-enters A, igniting instantaneously the 
whole of the charge. 

The existing type of the Phoenix-Daimler motor, Figs. 99 to 


i 


TYPICAL PETROL MOTORS DESCRIBED. 


143 


101, which dates from 1895, was combined under this name by 
Panhard and Levassor, grantees of the Daimler patents. It differs 
considerably from the two-cylinder motor just described. In it 
the cylinders are not inclined, the valves are not in the pistons, 
and there is no flushing with air; the latter point, according to 
the inventor, is the chief source of the success and small con- 



Fig. 98 .—Daimler New Ignition Apparatus. 


sumption of the motor. The Phoenix-Daimler motor, shown on 
the automobile in Fig. 10J (p. 145), has the following description:— 
A, cylinders; B, motor shaft; C, retarding gear; D, distributing 
shaft; E E 1 , cams governing by rods; S S 1 , exhaust valves; 
F, ferrule consisting of a cylindric part followed by a cam; it is 
mounted on shaft D and can slide along it under the action of 
the centrifugal governor (also mounted on shaft D but not illus¬ 
trated). When the ferrule F occupies its normal position the rods 
S S 1 are worked by cam-locking heels, and the exhaust takes place 
through the pipe Z. When this ferrule is drawn by the governor 
















































144 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


the cam F takes the place of its cylindric part causing oscillation 
of R 0 P, but valve S is still open because the connecting rod Pp 
has considerable play at P. On the contrary the valve S 1 is kept 
shut, because its rod moved from the ordinary position can no 
longer be locked by its heel; then, continuing to advance, the 
cam shuts valve S itself. J, small spirit tank; J, pipe conveying 
spirit to the burners; H, burner lanterns; G, Daimler-Phcenix 



Figs. 99 and 100 .—Phcenix-Daimler Petrol Motor. 


carburettei, illustrated and described on pp. 90 and 91 j tyi, pipe con¬ 
veying carburetted mixture to cylinders; L, centrifugal pump assur- 
mg circulation of water, v, roller moved by fly-wheel V and working 
the pump P, Pm, chamber for condensation of steam after water 
has flowed around the cylinders; U, lubricators; u, cups to admit 
a small quantity of petrol spirit into the cylinders at starting. 
The motor is made with two or four vertical cylinders coupled in 
pairs. With the four-cylinder motor only one of the pairs works 
along, easy roads; when all the power is necessary a very 
ingenious device acts in the governor and brings the other two 



























































































































4 


TYPICAL PETROL MOTORS DESCRIBED. 145 

cylinders into work. The pistons are attached in pairs on the 
same cranks. The admission valves work automatically, and the 
exhaust is operated by valves worked by levers and cams mounted on 
a shaft revolving half as quickly as the motor shaft. One of these 
valves can be left on its seat by play of the governor when the 
motor is working too rapidly, and there is an advantage in not 
admitting a new charge of carburetted air into the corresponding 
cylinder. A small lever on the mud-guard, and connected in a 



suitable manner with the governor, also enables the driver to 
decrease the rate of speed of the motor by the same means, and 
can completely stop it when the car is not running. A Daimler 
atomising carburetter (see pp. 90 and 91), is employed, and ignition is 
operated by platinum tubes. The cylinders are cooled by water 
circulated by a small centrifugal pump. By having the cylinders 
parallel, construction is simplified and it is possible to couple four, 
confining the valve gear to a single shaft and a single governor 
acting successively on the four exhausts. In the Daimler old type ? 
to get at the valves it was requisite to remove the burners, 
lanterns, and various pieces of pipe, and this was a job requiring 
K 













































































































146 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


not less than an hour. With the Phcenix-Daimler motor it is requisite 
merely to unscrew a bolt. Its specific weight is less than that of 
the former one, being less than 22 kg. (48-4 lb.) instead of from 
30 kg. to 35 kg. (66 lb. to 77 lb.) per h.p. 


' Particulars or Phcenix-Daimler Motor. 



Diameter of cylinders . 

8 cm. 

3‘15 in. 

Piston stroke ... 

12 cm. 

4'74 in. 

ttt • i , f 2 cylinders 4 h.p. . 

Weights j 4 c £ linders 8 h £. 

83 kg. 

155 kg. 

183 lb. 

341 lb. 

Number of revolutions per minute . 

850 


Compression of mixture at the dead point 

2*8 kg.per cm 2 

40 lb. per sq.in. 

Approximative pressure after ignition . 

12 kg. per cm 2 

170lb. per sq.in. 

Efficiency . 

75% 


Consumption of petrol spirit (density, 0 - 700) per h.p. 

0-65 1. 

1*15 pt. 


Fig. 102 shows the English Daimler-Phoenix motor, which corre¬ 
sponds to the 6 h.p. Panhard motor. The number of revolutions 
has been reduced to 650 per minute, because French rates of speed 
were found to be excessive, consequently its power is only 54 h.p. 
The chamber for admission of the carburetted mixture, which can 
be seen above the valves, is sufficiently large for the contents to 
fill the cylinder, the mixture thus having time to become more 
intimate in the carburetter. This fact, and the heavy fly-wheel, 
account for the great regularity of the motor in working. The two 
cranks are at 180°. The clack valve pump circulates the water 
well, but is thrown out of order easily. A single petrol spirit tank, 
kept under pressure by part of the exhaust gases, feeds the burners 
first and then the carburetter. At starting a few piston strokes 
convey the requisite amount of spirit to the burners. In Fig. 102, 
A is the cylinders, B the water-jacket, C burners, D E valves for 
admission and exhaust, J the distributing mechanism, and M the 
carburetter. 

The Simms petrol motor for cars has a water-jacketted cylinder 
cast in one piece, and cooling is very effective. The cylinder is of 
110 mm. (4 33 in.) bore and 100 mm. (3*93 in.) piston stroke, the working 
compression being 63 kg. per cm. 2 (90 lb. per sq. in.) and the power 
6 brake-horse-power at 1,000 revolutions, and 7 brake-liorse-power at 
1,200 revolutions per minute. With a 154 kg. (70 lb.) fly-wheel the 
motor weighs 334’4 kg. (152 lb.), this including carburetter, etc. The 













147 


TYPICAL PETROL MOTORS DESCRIBED. 

height over all is 5717 cm. (22-5 in.), the width over brackets is 
45-7 cm. (18 in.), and the length from end of crank shaft to outside of 
fly-wheel is 50 8 cm. (20 in.). The motor is shown in longitudinal 
section through cylinder and crank shaft by Fig. 103, in cross section 



Fig. 102. —English Phcenix- Daiml rr Petrol Motor. 


through cylinder and valves by Fig. 104, a plan of the cylinder head 
is given by Fig. 105, and a section through the cam shaft is shown by 
Fig. 100. The cam shaft operates the exhaust valve, the low tension 
ignition plug, and the magneto machine, and is carried across the 
outside of the crank chamber, and runs in an oil bath for the greater 
part of its length; it is driven by a fibre pinion on the crank shaft 
gearing with a phosphor-bronze wheel. A timing lever allows the 































































































































148 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


ignition cam gear to be adjusted relatively to its shaft on the Simms 
patent system ; and variations corresponding to motor speeds between 
200 and 1,500 revolutions per minute thus can be made. Counter¬ 
weights opposite the crank-pin on the main shaft are intended to 
balance the revolving parts ; special lubrication channels and passage 
in the crank chamber ensure automatic lubrication of the various 
bearing and thrust surfaces. The carburetter is of the float-feed type, 



Figs. 103 and 104.— Sections of Simms Petkol Motoii. Fig. 105.— Cylinder Head 

of Simms Motor. 


and is automatic in its action. The letters on Figs. 103 to 106 have 
the following referencesA, piston ; B, inlet valve ; C, exhaust 
valve; D, low tension igniter; D 1 , rod working the igniter; E, in¬ 
spection plug in head of cylinder ; F, connecting rod ; G, crank shaft 
with special lubrication of bearings; G 1 , counter-weights to balance 
connecting rod and piston; H, pinion on motor shaft; I, spur wheel 
on cam shaft; J, cam shaft passing through crank chamber; K, 
magneto-generator operated by pin N on cam shaft; L, exhaust 
cam ; M, plug which actuates igniter ; N, crank pin working magneto 
through connecting rods (not shown); O, rocking shafts regulating 
time of ignition ; O 2 , inspection cover; P, fork for sliding cam M, and 
crank pin N ; Q, fly-wheel. 




























































































































































TYPICAL PETROL MOTORS DESCRIBED. 149 

i 

The new horizontal Peugeot motor, Figs. 107 to 110, has two parallel 
cylinders, whose pistons drive the same crank; the admission valves 
are automatic, and the exhaust valves are worked mechanically ; below 
the cylinders is the shaft A, upon which act a lever and the slide 
B, moving in a groove in the cam C (Fig. 110) fixed concentrically on 
the crank shaft. Thus an angular displacement is communicated to 
the valve gear shaft A, and transmitted to a piece, E F (Fig. 109) 
in form of an inverted V; the small levers which terminate this 



Fig. 106 .—Side Elevation and Section of Simms Motor. 


piece alternately raise the exhaust valves. If the speed becomes 
excessive a centrifugal governor, housed in the crank chamber* 
overcomes the resistance of spring I), and repels, by the action of 
suitable levers, R, the sleeve surrounding the shaft A. This motion 
advances a special piece, which acts on the prolongations of the 
levers of E F, and makes them rock, stretching the little springs 
to be seen below, and thus preventing them from opening the 
valves. The burnt gases are retained in the cylinders, and thus 
prevent the cool mixture entering at the next revolution. Ignition 
is operated by incandescent tubes heated by two burners placed 
in the box which prolongs the cylinder head, and cooling is 



















































































150 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


with water. The motor is contained in a case having two side 
openings, through which enters the cold air for cooling pistons and 
cylinders, and there is an opening, normally closed by a slide, for 
lubrication. By unbolting the top part of the case the various 
parts of the motor can be reached. 

The Peugeot admission valve, shown closed by Fig. Ill and open by 
big. 112, is not positively operated, although the result given is the 



Fig. 107. Peugeot Petrol Motor: Longitudinal Section. Fig. 108._ Horizontal 

Section. Fig. 109.— Exhaust Valve of Peugeot Motor. Fig. 110.— Distribu¬ 
tion Cam of Peugeot Motor. 


same. In Fig. Ill, the valveis held against its seat by the spring h 
which is compressed to a greater extent than when the valve is open 
owing to the raised position of the cam-operated rod d. This rod d 
carries the piece g on an arm / and at the lower end of d is the roller 
c, pressed against a cam b on the half-speed shaft a by a sprint e 
The end of the valve rod f has a sleeve i, shaped to' receive the 
spring h at its lower part, and to engage with a pivoted bell crank k 
at its upper extremity. The one arm of the piece k tends to hold 
open the. valve when it has been opened, and it is held in this- 

























































































































































































































TYPICAL PETROL MOTORS DESCRIBED. 


151 


position by a fiat spring m. The arm k 1 is so shaped that it is lifted 
from its lower position by a projection/ 1 of the arm/, when the cam 
raises the rod d. The cam allows the rod d, to drop just before the 
beginning of the suction stroke, and thus it causes the spring li to 
exert a reduced pressure on the valve rod j. Then the valve opens 
as a result of atmospheric pressure, and the catch-piece k rocking 



about the pin l holds the valve in position. During the remainder 
of the suction stroke the cam gradually raises rod d, and after 
compressing spring h it releases the valve rod j, and allows the 
valve to be closed suddenly. 

The first Benz motor was a two-stroke cycle double-acting single¬ 
cylinder of too complex structure for automobiles. A four-stroke cycle 
single cylinder motor was afterwards adopted (see Figs. 113 and 114). 
The carburetter K (without constant level), helped by the heat 
taken from part of the burnt gases, sends its explosive mixture to 



























































































































152 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


the cylinder through^the regulating valve R (there is no mechanical 
governor); the mixture enters the distributing box at A, in which 
are the valves and sparking plug e. By means of the connecting rod 
C 1 the gearing C works the exhaust valve. Tube E is the exhaust 



pipe. There is electric ignition, and cooling is with water, without 
pump. The diameter of the cylinder is 154 mm. (6 in.), the piston 
stroke is 180 mm. (7 in.), there are 480 revolutions per minute, and the 
effective power is 5 h.p. In a second type, with twin cylinders cast 
m the same jacket for circulation of water, the valves and sparkino- 
plugs are placed in the ends of the cylinder, and a mechanical 













































































































































TYPICAL PETROL MOTORS DESCRIBED. 


153 


interruption distributes the current. In a third type two cylinders 
of the first type are placed end to end, and connected by the same 
frame which carriesjthe crank shaft and fly-wheel. 



Fig. 117 . — 

De Dion - 
Bouton Ig¬ 
niter. 

Fig-. 118. — 
De Dion - 
Bouton 
MoToit Sys¬ 
tem. * 

Fig. 117. 


The de Dion-Bouton car motor 
is fully illustrated by Figs. 115 to 
118. Fig. 115 is a general view. 

Fig. 116 a cross section, Fig. 117 
shows the igniter, and Fig. 118 the 
motor, carburetter, etc., and their 
connections. Referring to Fig. 116, 

A is the aluminium crank-case 
made in halves jointed in an oil- 
tight manner, and to it is bolted 
the cast-iron cylinder G with 
water-jacket J. The inlet valve 
B is spring-controlled, the exhaust 
valve C also being spring-con¬ 
trolled and opened at definite in¬ 
tervals by a cam; this cam with 
its gear is actuated by pinion P 

on the motor shaft. The piston L is ol cast-iron and M is 
the connecting rod, N being the crank fixed to the fly-wheels 
K, and serving as a bearing for the lower end of the connecting 
rod. The motor shafts 0 communicate their power by means 




■ 



































































154 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


of pinions. The sparking plug is screwed into the threaded 
hole E, and the compression tap into D. The water is removed 
from the jacket at I. With regard to the igniter, Fig. 117, 
a is the insulating plate or base upon which are mounted the two 
supports or standards b and v. The former carries the trembler t, 
and through v passes the platinum-tipped regulating screw d, whose 
end makes contact with a little platinum boss on the trembler. At 
the lower end of the trembler spring is riveted a steel shoe which fits 
into a notch in the motor-operated cam c. As the cam is revolved, 
the trembler shoe falls into the notch of the cam c, and screw d and 
trembler t become in contact. As the cam lifts the shoe out of the 



notch, the circuit is interrupted. The moment of contact and con¬ 
sequently of ignition, is varied by moving the vibrator around the cam 
shaft. In the scheme illustrated by Fig. 118, B is the coil; C, car¬ 
buretter; M, motor; P, battery, and S, exhaust silencer. 

The Benz motor has had many imitations, chiefly of the twin- 
cylinder type, and among them are those of Audibert-Lavirotte, 
Rochet-Schneider, Delahaye, Hurtu-Diligeon, and G. Richard. The 
Audioeit-Lavirotte motor is made with one or two cylinders* to 
decrease compression at starting a discharge valve, worked by a 
. lever and a cam, can be opened. Rochet and Schneider have aimed 
at balancing all the motor parts, and have modified the Benz 
motor in some of its details. Delahaye’s motor (Fig. 19) has two 
horizontal cylinders driving two cranks keyed at 180°, and there 
is a bubbling carburetter, with constant level. The exhaust valves 
are governed by two cams o, the larger of which works during 
normal running and the smaller one at the time of starting, so as 

































TYPICAL PETROL MOTORS DESCRIBED. 


155 


to give an exhaust in advance during compression. The electric 
ignition requires only one accumulator, which is said to work for 
2,000 km. (1,240 miles), owing to a special appliance which works 
the contacts. There is no governor. A centrifugal pump circulates 
the water, its driving pulley being keyed on an intermediary shaft. 
At the normal speed ot 700 revolutions the motor gives from 6 to 
8 h.p. In Fig. 119 b is the box for the admission and exhaust 
valves with access plugs a, placed behind each of the cylinders; the 
cylinder jackets are divided into two compartments, one for water, 
and the other for heating air to be used in the carburetter; the 
motor is suspended at f, and o indicates the cams already referred to. 

In the Delahaye two-cylinder motor, with cranks placed at an 



angle of 180° from one another, electrical contact for ignition now 
is made and broken in the manner shown by Fig. 120. The central 
portion of the device is a metal and fibre drum mounted upon the 
half-speed shaft, the external stationary part carrying two insulated 
terminals with their contact-making arms, and two spring plungers 
which press the arms against the drum. Electrical circuits are com¬ 
pleted periodically, when the motor is working, between either of the 
terminals and the metallic portion of the drum. Each of the two 
terminals is connected through the low-tension windings of an 
induction coil to a battery, whose other terminal is “ earthed,” and the 
high-tension windings of the coils are connected to the two ignition 
plugs respectively. Thus the coils act alternately, and the ignition 
in the two cylinders occurs at the required periods in the cycle. 

The Hurtu-Diligeon motor formerly was cooled by air, driven by 
a fan against the cylinder flanges ; but this method was found in¬ 
sufficient, and now water-cooling is adopted. In G. Richard’s motor 















































156 


THE AUTOMOBILE . 


the cranks of the two pistons are keyed at 180°, and there is an 
improved system of electric ignition, described in dealing with the 
car of this builder {see p. 459). A special governor, adjustable during 
the journey, acts on the exhaust during a time proportional with 
the useful energy. Cambier makes motors with 1, 2, 3 or 4 



* cylinders, most frequently with two cylinders, the two cranks form¬ 
ing the same angle with the motor shaft (Fig. 121). Two admission 
valves for each cylinder give considerable inlet suction, yet making 
each cylinder light and easy to cool. The valves are worked by 
eccentrics, connecting rods, bent levers and palettes ; the latter com¬ 
municate their rising and falling motion to the valves. Tube 
ignition is employed. The 8 h.p. motor weighs 132 kg. (290 4 lb. ), 
and the four-cylinder motor easily attains 12 h.p. The Amedee 
Bollee motor has two horizontal cylinders with simultaneous stroke, 













































































TYPICAL PETROL MOTORS DESCRIBED. 157 

giving one explosion per revolution, a single crank working the 
motor shaft. Ignition is by incandescent tubes. Regulation is 
operated by a governor, which operates a cam, in which a button 
glides connected with the V-piece, the cam opening by its alternate 



Figs. 124 and 125. —Moks Two-cylinder Petrol Motor. 


oscillations the two exhaust valves. A certain stroke of the V-piece 
corresponds with each position of the cam and a certain opening 
of the valves. The flow of water for cooling is obtained simply 
by gravitation : a float and needle-valve maintain a constant level 
in the carburetter. 

The Mors motor, with four cylinders, has them inclined at 
45°, arranged in pairs above and on each side of the motor- 
shaft. The connecting rods of each pair of pistons are connected 






































































































































































158 . THE AUTOMOBILE. 

with cranks keyed at 180° (see Figs. 122 and 123). There is automatic 
admission, and the exhaust is governed by cams. The governor 
varies the amount and charge of the mixture admitted. The 
carburetter is described on p. 95, and the system of electric 
ignition on p. 464. The cylinders are cooled by flanges, and the ex¬ 
plosion-chamber by a flow of water produced by a special pump • 
the motor makes 800 revolutions per minute. In the two- 
cylinder type (Figs. 124 to 127) the two vertical pistons A A, side 
by side, work the same crank furnished with counter-weights 
(sometimes there are two cranks keyed at 180°). The inlet valves 
C are above the exhaust valves D. The motor shaft B works by 
means of pinions H I, the tubular shaft E upon which slides the 


F 


F Ficr. 127 . 

Figs. 126 and 127. —Mors Distributing Mechanism. 

\ 

sleeve of a centrifugal governor (Fig. 126). The two balls F F are 
connected by arms J J with a pin K K (Fig. 127), diametrically 
through the tubular shaft, and passing in a nut L inside this 
shaft where it can be displaced. The nut L is solid, with a rod 
M, sliding friction tighten a plug nut G, a spiral spring N being 
placed between the nut L and the plug G. The governor-sleeve 
forms half of a clutch coupling, the other half of which forms one 
with a tubular shaft H concentric with shaft E. The cams 
governing the exhaust valves and ignition parts are fixed on shaft 
H. A ormally under the action of spring N the sleeve engages 
with the second part of the gearing keyed on shaft H, and the 
cams work the exhaust valves and the ignition. When the speed 
of the shaft exceeds a certain limit, disengaging occurs, and shaft 
H no longer depends on E, the cams are not worked, and exhaust 
and ignition cease. It is a system different from those hitherto 
described, which allow the cams to continue working, but prevent 



























































TYPICAL PETROL MOTORS DESCRIBED. 


159 


them from acting on the valves. All the mechanism described is 
enclosed in the box P (Fig. 124) of the crank shaft. The various 
speeds are obtained by varying the intake of explosive mixture by 
means of a plate which partially or completely closes the inlet 
channels. The cylinders are cooled by a current of water G (Fig. 125) 
surrounding each over all the part corresponding with the travel of 




Fig. 129 .—Gautier Wehrle 
Petrol Motor. 


the piston and the exhaust valve. In a third type of about 4 h.p., 
employed by Mors for his two-seat voiturettes, one of which 
figured at the Tuileries in 1899, the two horizontal cylinders face 
each other. Although ignition is electric there is a speed regulator, 
which can also vary under the influence of a valve which 
governs entrance of the carburetted air into the cylinders; cooling 
is by a flow of water. 

The Landry-Beyroux motor, Fig. 128, has a single vertical cylinder, 
admission to which is controlled by an automatic valve and to 
the box in front of latter by a mechanically-worked valve. The 



















































































































































160 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


centrifugal governor closes or simply decreases the opening of the 
valve. Carburetting is by an atomiser, in which a drop-counter 
conveys, as required, the amount of petrol spirit. Ignition is elec¬ 
trical. Cooling is by water kept in motion by a rotary pump 
worked by the motor fly-wheel. In Fig. 128, A is the water com¬ 
partment fitting upon cylinder B and containing the three exhaust 
valves s, automatic inlet valve for mixture, -s* 1 and carburetted air 
inlet s 11 ; k is the cam shaft; a roller which is turned to 90° comes 
into contact with a cam giving a slight compression at starting. 
Ignition is delayed to facilitate starting. As soon as it is running 
the valve s is worked by the roller shown on the left of a, and 
by the ordinary exhaust cam. F is the exhaust pipe terminating 
in the bed-plate; L, bent lever hinged to frame and resting on a 
distributing cam ; h , disc connected with L by a spiral spring and 
having two points, i g ; the first engages with the rod 2 of the 
carburetted air-valve s 11 , and the second allows the rod e, connected 
with governor, to turn the disc h, the point i of which misses 0 
when speed is excessive. A pedal-lever (the accelerator) serves to 
abate the action of the governor, and so to increase speed. The 
power is from 2 to 8 h.p. The makers of this motor also have 
invented a two-cylinder motor of 16 h.p. for heavy vehicles. 

The Gautier-Wehrle motor has two horizontal cylinders face to 
face on opposite sides of the motor shaft (Fig. 129) or sometimes 
twin cylinders. The cranks are at 180°. The exhaust valves 
are worked by a single cam operated by the governor so as to 
successively and according to requirements cut off the exhaust in 
each cylinder. The carburetter is described on p. 95. Electric or 
tube ignition is used. Cooling is by a current of water. For a 
car with four seats a working speed of 800 revolutions per minute 
gives from 5 to 6 h.p., but when the car stops the number of 
revolutions can be reduced to 100 by aid of a special device. 

Lepape successively invented several types of motors. The first 
type has three cylinders at 120° (Fig. 130) and a four-stroke cycle ; 
there is a total of three explosions for every two revolutions; the 
three connecting-rod ends are connected with the same crank on 
the motor shaft as in the Brotherhood type. Automatic admission 
is by valve A. Electric ignition is operated at B. The exhaust 
valve J, after the driving stroke is raised by a finger I, is worked 
by one of the cams G; these cams are diametrically opposite on 


161 


TYPICAL PETROL MOTORS DESCRIBED. 


a bronze boss driven by the motor shaft at a quarter the speed by 
means of four steel wheels with helicoidal teeth. The surface 
carburetter is kept at constant level by the bird’s drinking fountain 
device, and is warmed by the water employed to cool the cylinders- 
the water is forced by a pump into the cylinder jackets, and 



Fig. 130. — Lepape Three- 
cylinder Petrol Motor. 
Fig. 131. —Lerape One- 
cylinder Petrol Motor. 


Fig. 130. 


Fig. 131. 


ascends to a tank, whence it falls in fine rain in contact with the 
air. A 6 h.p. motor has a weight of 245 kg. (539 lb.) plus that 
of the fly wheel 55 kg. (121 lb.), and the speed is 400 revolutions 
per minute; consumption is 0*66 1. (1*17 pt.) per horse-power hour. 
These figures refer to a type already four years old. 

The second type of Lepape motor (Fig. 131) has one cylinder, 
and is suitable for a small car. A is the automatic admission, and 
E the mechanical exhaust. There is no governor, carburetting and 
ignition being the same as in the three-cylinder motor. For cooling, 
L 



































































































































































































162 THE AUTOMOBILE. 

the hanged cylinder is surrounded with channels, into which the 
air rushes during running and makes its exit in a collector at the 
rear, where the draught is accelerated by the escape ot the burnt 
gases. At rest, when there is no exhaust, the air runs in the 
opposite direction owing to the difference of level between the hot 
cylinder and the exhaust pipe. The power is 3 h.p., and the 
weight per horse-power remains about the same as in the first type, 
the extra weight of flanges being counterbalanced by absence of 
water-cooling apparatus. The normal working is at 300 revolutions 
per minute, and this may be doubled. 

The third type of Lepape motor (Fig. 132) is vertical, and was 



shown at the International Automobile Exhibition of 1898; it has 
two cylinders, and cooling is as in the second type. The inlet 
valves are automatic, and the exhaust valves are worked by cams 
C C (Fig. 132) situated as are the cams A A 1 for electric ignition 
on an intermediary shaft above the cylinder and driven by a chain 
at half speed. A hen speed is excessive a governor on this shaft 
displaces the cam C, thus keeping shut the exhaust valve and 
putting the corresponding cylinder out of work. Contacts A A 1 
also can be displaced so as to change the lead of ignition and 
vary the speed from 400 to 1,200 revolutions. At N the working 
of a multiple Hamelle lubricator can be seen. The motor weighs 
170 kg. (374 lb.) and can develop 8 h.p. with cylinders 11 cm. 
(4 3 in.) in diameter. 

P. Gautier’s motors, Figs. 133 to 135, have four vertical cylinders 
with connecting-rods, coupled in pairs, with two cranks at 180° from 























































TYPICAL PETROL MOTORS DESCRIBED. 


163 


each other, placed on two parallel shafts C and O ; these shafts 
only one of which works at a time, are connected with two pinions 
so that their movement may be interdependent and more regular 
The inlet and exhaust valves of each cylinder are side by side 
(Fig. 134), and mechanically governed by a system of levers and 




Fii*’. 133. —Gautier Petrol Motok. Fia\ 

u o 

134. —Valves of Gautier Motor. Fig-. 

135. —Gautier Regulation. 


cams mounted on a drum E, which 
is driven by half-speed gearing, 
Regulation is by a governor 
mounted on the motor shaft C. 
whose sleeve (Fig. 135) works, by 
a balance-beam moving around a 
central axis, the drum E upon 
and inlet cams. The first are wide 


which are mounted the exhaust 
enough for the balance-beam to always open the exhaust valves, 
whilst the second are narrower, and when the governor displaces them 
the inlet valves remain closed. The carburetter is described on p. 105 
ignition is by incandescent tubes, and cooling is by water. The con¬ 
sumption is said to be '5 1. ('88 pt.) of petrol spirit per horse-power hour. 

In the Yallee motor two horizontal cylinders drive the motor 
shaft with two cranks at 180 . The pure air and carburetted air 
are mixed in a special box containing distributing discs, which 


















































































































































































164 


THE AUTOMOBILE 


have suitable openings to enable the driver to vary, by aid of two 
handles, both the proportions and the amount of the mixture 
there is no other regulation. The carburetter has a constant 
level. There is electric ignition, the primary current passing only 
at the time of sparking. Cooling is by water flowing in two tanks 
forming a thermo-syphon. At a speed of 500 revolutions per minute 
4 h.p. is given. 

In the Tenting motor there are two conjugated cylinders horizontal 
or inclined symmetrically. The carburetted air sucked by the piston 
receives its complement of pure air in the cylinder. Regulation is by 
aid of a lever, which prevents the escape valve from shutting; there 
is incandescent ignition. For his omnibus Tenting has constructed a 
16 h.p. motor with four cylinders, 140 mm. (5'5 in.) bore, and stroke 
220 mm. (87 in.). 

The two cylinders of the Pygmee motor are vertical and the cranks 
are at 180°. The carburetted air generally prepared by the Longuemare 
carburetter (see p. 98) enters the cylinders at such a tangent as to 
cause a gyration, which completes the mixture. A centrifugal force 
governor keeps open one exhaust valve at first, and then the second 
if necessary. Working speed is 800 revolutions per minute. This 
motor can be worked with petroleum. 

The D. Auge motor is often called the Cyclops. It has two parallel 
horizontal cylinders and a single disc crank. The two ignition tubes 
are placed side by side, and heated by a single burner. The carburetter 
has a micrometric regulator. A centrifugal force governor placed in 
the fly-wheel tends to turn a loose collar on the hub of the fly-wheel; 
but as this collar is furnished with two inclined grooves, guided by 
two pins fixed in the hub, the collar is given a lateral displacement, 
which is transmitted to an inlet valve, which is throttled. This 
regulating valve is a kind of tap, whose shell can be moved around 
the plug by hand and along this plug by the governor. The motor 
weighs about 20 kg. (44 lb.) per h.p., say 100 kg. (220 lb.) for 5 h.p. • 
and makes 600 revolutions. 

The Gaillardet 10 h.p. motor has the two systems of ignition, the 
sparking plugs being placed between the two tubes which normally 
produce ignition. The Longuemare burners with platinum tubes are 
employed only in case of need. 

A peculiar feature in the Buchet motor with two cylinders is that 
the inlet valves are on the cylinder itself. The electric ignition has a 


TYPICAL PETROL MOTORS DESCRIBED. 


165 

variable lead, and on the secondary shaft there is a fibre disc with a 
contact, the piimary current passes only when this contact rests on 
the cam, which does not revolve with the secondary shaft, but can be 
ke} 7 ed at a modified angle. 

The 8 h.p. Ideal motor constructed by Vincke, Roch-Brault and 
Co., of Malines, has two vertical cylinders, cranks at 90°, and a cen- 



Fiof. 136. —Hexroid Petrol Motor. 

O 


trifugal force governor, which prevents the cam rods meeting with 
those of the exhaust valve, which thus remain closed. 

Water is circulated by a semi-rotary pump, driven by the 
motor shaft by aid of gear and connecting rods. 

The Henroid motor (Fig. 136) has two horizontal opposite cylin¬ 
ders, whose pistons act on cranks keyed at 180° on the motor shaft 
between them; the two move inversely; and equilibrate each other. 
The inlet and exhaust valves form a distinct part from the cylinder. 
The carburetter is of the distributor kind, as described on p. 106, 
and only at the instant of compression produced by the piston in 
each cylinder is the carburetted mixture completed and made fully 
























































































































































































THE AUTOMOBILE. 


166 


explosive. Cooling is obtained merely by special flanges, and the 
makers sav that this suffices for their various motors, which range 
from 2 li.p. to 10 h.p. A Henroid 8 h.p. car in 1899 ran from 
Paris to Bordeaux, a distance of 565 km. (351 miles) in 19 h. 15 min. 
Ignition is electric; and regulation is by keeping the exhaust valves 
open when the motor tends to race. 

The Turman and Fov two-cylinder motor for cars and voiturettes 

^ «y • 

is shown in section by Fig. 137, and the object of the peculiar con¬ 
struction is to obtain improved balancing. Each piston works upon 



a separate crank shaft, but both of the crank shafts gear with a 
common central shaft, which they drive at half their own speed. 
In both the belt-driven and chain-driven petrol cars produced by the 
above firm the motor lies transversely across the front (.see p. 448). 

The Mees petrol motor, used on the larger cars constructed on the- 
Gustav Mees system, is shown in longitudinal sectional elevation by 
Fig. 138. It is of the so-called balanced type and consists of a single¬ 
horizontal cylinder in which are two pistons, the central space in the 
cylinder between the pistons forming the combustion chamber. The 
power is transmitted to the main shafting, which is immediately 
below the centre of the cylinder, by means of rocking beams and con¬ 
necting rods as shown by Fig. 138 ; and thus there are equal weights 
always at equal distances from the axis of symmetry, and a 
theoretically nearly perfect balance is obtained. The motor fly-wheel 















































TYPICAL PETROL MOTORS DESCRIBED. 


167 


is very heavy so as to give a quiet, even movement. The motor 
appears to be simple, its working parts are well balanced, and a case 
prevents the interference of dust. 

In the Le Brun motor two cylinders are inclined slightly to 
the vertical, the pistons being connected to the same crank. The 
inlet valves are worked mechanically, and regulation is by cutting 
oft the supply ol explosive mixture. In the Papillon motor, also, 


Fig. 138 .—Mees Petrol Motor. Fig. 139 .—Ravel Petrol Motor. 



Fig. 13S. 



pZZZZZZ/P 


2ZZZZZZ 




AAAZZZZZm 


I 


two cylinders are inclined to the vertical, and they are bolted on 
a cylindrical aluminium case containing oil; the two connecting 
rods jointed to the pistons are mounted obliquely on two distinct 
cranks at about 36 from each other. The carburetter employed 
is described on p. 88. There is electric ignition, the lead of which 
can be made to vary for both cylinders at the same time. Ihe 
cooling is by copper flanges forming hoops, the cylinder heads and 
valve boxes being likewise hanged. 3 h.p. is given normally. 

The Ravel motor (Fig. 139) has two vertical pistons I) ( , which 
together suck the carburetted mixture in ascending, and force it to 
the top part of one ol the cylinders in descending. For this pur¬ 
pose the lower part of the cylinders B A and the case in which the 









































































































168 


THE A UTOMOBILE. 

three-crank discs move form the body of a sucking' and forcing 
pump, which has a large useful volume. This pump exerts its 
power in the valve box shown at G, having a valve g to ad¬ 
mit the carburetted mixture, and another valve It, by which the 
mixture is conveyed to the admission box containing the valves of 
the two cylinders, and a tap R, which serves to regulate the inlet; 
p is a throttle valve, worked by a centrifugal force governor. The 
charge accumulated in the cylinder is compressed by the piston, 
which ascends, and is ignited by spark or tube; thus there is an 
explosion at each revolution. The inlet valves are worked by cams, 
as is the exhaust. This motor was invented a long time ago, and 
formerly its weak point was the carburetter. 

Ravel’s later carburetter acts by laminating the petrol spirit 
and condensing the drops so that the carburetted air reaches the 
cylinder dry; it is always full of air at a pressure of from 100 g. 
to 120 g. per cm. 3 (14 lb. to 17 lb. per sq. in.), and the tempera¬ 
ture is constant at from 30° to 35° C., thus rendering it possible 
in winter as in summer to work with heavy oils, which may 
have a density as great as 0.735. This carburetter was employed ' 
on the 8 lr.p. motor which Ravel exhibited at the Tuileries in 
1899, and for which the following advantages are claimed. Each 
cylinder receives a double charge for each explosion, thus giving 
twice the power obtainable with a single charge, thence the name 
of intensive motor. The carburetted mixture first enters the 
distribution box where ignition occurs, then it enters the cylinder, 
and then the exhaust box; consequently the distribution box 
contains only new carburetted air and good explosion is always 
produced Ravel maintains that this motor of 8 li.p. consumes 
only from 1 1. to 105 1. (T76 pt. to 1*85 pt.) of petrol spirit per 
horse-power hour. 

The Brouhot motor is merely the industrial motor of the firm, 
with two cylinders of lighter materials. The air and vapour enter an 
auxiliary chamber through orifices, and by means of a cylindrical 
plug with a screwed stem and a hand wheel. Both the air and 
the vapour pipes are closed more or less so as to reduce the volume 
of mixture admitted without changing the proportions. There is 
electric ignition. 

r lhe motor of G. Bouche has two horizontal cylinders with 
cranks at 180°, and a carburetter based on the principle of the 


TYPICAL PETROL MOTORS DESCRIBED. 


169 


oscillating membrane of the aneroid barometer to assure a constant 
level. A fly-wheel with a regulator acts on the inlet valve and 
limits the speed of the motor to 500 or 600 revolutions per 
minute. The exhaust valves are worked by a rocking lever which 
governs an eccentric. There is electric ignition with distribution 
which legulates the lead, hor 4^ h.p. the diameter of the cvlinders 
is 00 mm. (3\54 in.) and the piston stroke is 160 mm. (6-34 in.). 



Figs. 140 and 141. —Gorron and Brillie Petrol Motor. 


The Gobron and Brillie motor, known in Great Britain as 
the Teras motor, is shown by Figs. 140 and 141. It has two 
vertical cylinders side by side, with two pistons in each, e / 
and e l f\ each pair working in opposite directions. The rods 
of the lower pistons drive the crank R; those of the higher 
pistons, by means of the bar It and the connecting rods f t, drive 
the cranks b b l , which are at 180° from the first. The coupling 
of the higher pistons is thus heavier than that of the lower pistons, 
but in return the throw of the cranks b b l is smaller than that of 
R, and the difference is calculated so that the strains of the two 








































































































170 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


sets of pistons perfectly equilibrate each other. All the motor 
vibrations appear to be overcome. The charges of oils measured 
by volume by the appliance described on p. 106 which is controlled 
by the regulator are atomised in the suction pipe and mixed with air; 
the mixture admitted by the automatic valve n enters the channel 
below into one of the explosion chambers m 1 or m~, and after 
compression is ignited electrically. An automatic eommutater is 
placed on the secondary circuit and alternately sparks in each 
chamber with a single coil: the lead of ignition is regulated 
automatically by the lever, for speed changing, the speed ranging 
from 250 to 1,000 revolutions per minute. The amount of water 
employed for cooling can be limited by aid of a radiator to 8 1. or 
10 1. (14 pt. to 17*6 pt.). 

Gladiator motors are of two types of 2 h.p., one having two 
opposite cylinders, for tricycles and quadricycles; the other, of 
4 h.p., and having two juxtaposed cylinders, for voiturettes ; the 
first has electric ignition, and the second tube ignition : in the 
latter the inlet valves are worked mechanically. 

The filan motor has two vertical cylinders, equilibrated by a 
special coupling; their connecting rods work two cranks connected 
by toothed wheels. The pistons uncover an opening in the cylinder 
at the end of their stroke, thus giving an anticipated exhaust and 
a depression which causes cooling of the gases; the thin walls of 
the cylinder, the steel flanges, and the wings complete cooling. 
Ignition is by break spark, with adjustable lead. For starting, a 
special pawl and gear are used. The weight of the motor, with its 
fly-wheel and constant level carburetter, is 52 kg. (114*4 lb.), the 
speed is from 200 to 1,200 revolutions per minute, and the con¬ 
sumption is stated to be from 0*43 1. to 0*51. (075 pt. to 0*88 pt.) of 
petrol spirit per horse-power hour. 

The Hautier, or Esperance motor, employs incandescent ignition. 
Hitherto the moment of ignition could be varied only with the 
electric spark; with tubes, compression and explosion are regulated 
for once and for all (see pp. 28 and 29), so that the explosion will not 
occur before the piston has reached the end of its stroke in order to 
avoid the awkwardness of a premature explosion. The method 
ensures safety of starting, but renders it impossible to vary the- 
moment of ignition, though such variation is very desirable. If, 
however, the compression chamber could be made with a variable 


TYPICAL PETROL MOTORS DESCRIBED. 



Figs. 142 and 143 .— Hautiek or Esperance Petrol Motor. 

































































































































































































































































































































172 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 

\ 

volume, this would have only to be limited to increase the compres¬ 
sion, and so alter the moment of explosion. This is Hautier’s 
process for obtaining advance in ignition with incandescent tubes. 
The cylinders (Figs. 142 and 143) are not bolted to the case; instead 
each slides in a tube grafted on it, and their position, assured by 
screws 40 mm. (1'57 in.) in diameter, can be regulated from the 
driver’s seat by a worm. In the arrangement shown by Fig. 142 
the cylinder motion is obtained by aid of connecting rods and 
levers. Hautier asserts that the explosive mixture is used as well 
at 800 revolutions as at 200, and that for the same expense from 
30 per cent, to 35 per cent, more power is obtained. Hautier’s 
16 h.p. motor at the Paris Exhibition of 1899 had four cylinders, 
and is shown by Figs. 142 and 143. The admission and exhaust 
valves 13 are maintained on the head of each cylinder C by a fork 
G and a single nut F; ■ exhaust gas is taken away from each pair 
of cylinders by a single branch H, which is secured to the cylinder 
head by a bolt I, furnished with a counter nut. A tube J 
conveys the cooling water to the four cylinders, and a single tube, 
J 1 carries it away. In the centre of the case, which is of aluminium, a 
pillow block Q (Fig. 143) supports the crank ; the bronze bearing block 
of this has a nipple cast on the top, in which is pivoted the distribut¬ 
ing shaft R, which receives motion from a toothed wheel S, 
gearing with teeth made in the hollow of the fly-wheel, L 1 . The 
shaft R carries the governor U, which turns in the case con¬ 
stantly lubricated; its sleeve has a groove, which, by a fork and 
lever, act on the valve of a carburetter and regulate the intake of 
petrol spirit. A ring above, by stretching a spring, impedes the 
movement of the governor, and acts as an accelerator. Hautier 
also exhibited at an Exhibition in Paris in 1899 a 1J h.p. de Dion- 
Bouton motor, furnished with a device of a similar kind. A screw, 
worked from the saddle, makes it possible to vary the volume of 
the cylinder’s contents, this screw having taken the place of the 
reducing tap. At starting, the screw is raised to its maximum, and 
uncovers an orifice, which assures reduction of the volume of the 
chamber compression. This reduction must not be continued until 
ignition occurs spontaneously, because then the driver would not 
he master of the moment when ignition occurs. 

The Petreano motor can work with petrol spirit, petroleum, or 
alcohol, and apparently it is economic, one horse-power hour being 


TYPICAL PETROL MOTORS DESCRIBED. 


173 


obtained, it is said, with 0294 1. (05 pt.) of petroleum, density 
0'85. The 8 h.p. model exhibited at the Tuileries in 1898 weighed 
425 kg. (935 lb.); ignition was electric. 

The chief points of the Petreano motor are its carburetter de¬ 
scribed on p. 89, and its reversing gear shown by Figs. 144 to 140- 
Two valves A B, side by side, are worked by the rods a and b; 
the first valve receives the explosive mixture through channel F C, 
and the second discharges the exhaust gases by D, E, G. E is a 
four-way tap which can be placed in the position of Fig. 145 to 



Fig. 144. —Valves of Petreano Petrol Motor. Figs. 145 and 140. — Petreano 

Distributing Device. 


allow the mixture to pass from the carburetter to the cylinder; 
when placed in the position of Fig. 146 it isolates the valves from 
their pipes, and a further turn causes b (Fig. 144) to be the inlet valve 
and a the exhaust valve. Thus the gear is reversed by a simple rota¬ 
tion of the tap, for which operation skill is requisite. The tap first must 
be placed in the position of Fig. 146 to cease to feed the cylinder and 
slacken speed, then explosion is produced which drives the piston back¬ 
wards. It then suffices to turn the tap and place it in the position 
corresponding to that kind of rotation to obtain continuous motion. 
Petreano makes the inlet and exhaust orifices equal, and the complete 
mixture reaches them from a considerable distance. This advantage, 
combined with the absence of flowing water for cooling the cylinder, 
makes the application of this motor to automobiles very desirable. 

























































































































174 


THE A UTOMO BIL E. 


The motor of the Societe d’Automobilisme (Figs. 147 and 148) 
has the carburetter c fixed on the lower part, which enables the 
explosive mixture to pass by the pipe m to the automatic inlet 
valve s. The lamp for heating the ignition tubes heats also a 
cylinder b perforated at the end with holes which are covered with 
wire gauze through which the air is sucked. The air is conveyed 






Fig. 148. 


Figs. 147 and 148.— 
>Soci£t£ d’Automo¬ 
bilisme Petrol 
Motor. 


Fig. 14' 


through the pipe d into the car¬ 
buretter at the place where the petrol 
spirit brought by the tube /, and 
sucked by the pipe m, issues from a 
needle valve fixed on the valve g 
which is raised by the suction. After 
the explosion there is a premature 
escape of burnt gases through the 
lateral valve l, which works auto¬ 
matically. The valve e, through 
which the final exhaust takes place, 
is worked by a cam turning with 
wheel gearing at half speed. When 
the speed of the motor increases the governor in the fly-wheel opens 
the windows on the circumference of the lantern n, so that the 
valve <j remains shut, and fresh mixture cannot be admitted; only 
air arrives by the pipe m at the suction valve s of the motor. For 
the sake of safety the lantern is closed with an end o furnished 
with springs which, in the case of explosion caused by a return 
flame, yield and thus prevent all danger. 

The Canello-Diirkopp motor is vertical, and of 4, 6, 8, or 12 
h.p., or even more; it is ignited by tubes and cooled by water 
flowing by gravitation or circulated by a pump, according to the 













































































































































TYPICAL PETROL MOTORS DESCRIBED. 175 

size of the motor. Ihe normal speed is 800 revolutions per 
minute. The distinctive feature is the working of the exhaust 
val\es and the regulation of motion. The crank shaft turns the 
pinion M (Fig. 140), which is wide enough to gear always with the 
toothed wheel L mounted on axle A, which can be shifted longi¬ 
tudinally under the action of the centrifugal force governor shown 
by the side of the wheel L. I o prevent this axle from wearing 
away, by sliding in its bearings 0, it has rings P, to which it is 




Fig. 149. —Canello-Dvkkovp Petkol Motor. 

fastened by keys R. These keys allow the axle to slide 
longitudinally, but force the rings to turn with it so that 
the part worn away is between the rings and the bear¬ 
ings. When the motor is inclined to race, the governor 
draws the shaft towards the left; the rollers C C 1 , which 
by the rods D D 1 work the exhaust valves one after the 
other, leave the bosses b b l of the cams B B 1 , and descend on to 
the cylindrical necks of these cams and then they no longer open 
the valves. To make them continue to do so the driver has merely 
to pull upwards the rod H which annuls the action of the governor. 
The bell crank lever G working around the axle g in fact exerts a 
traction strain on the grooved sleeve F 1 fixed to the shaft A, and 
pulls it in the direction opposite to that of the governor. 

The Koch motor introduces the motors that can be fed with 
petroleum, as well as with petrol spirit. In the horizontal cylinder 
two pistons work symmetrically in opposite directions and drive 
the motor shaft by aid of two systems of connecting rods (see Figs. 


























































































































176 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


150 and 151); when these rods are balanced all other parts are. 
The maker asserts that this motor does not cause vibration. I he 
petrol spirit or petroleum arrives with the air in the explosion 
chamber, where the two are mixed without any carburetter. 

Fig. 150 is a longitudinal section of the Koch motor. A single 
water-jacketed cylinder C is placed transversely in the rear part 
of the vehicle, and is mounted on the framing D, supported by Iv. 
The two pistons P P are connected by rods F to the rocking 
levers L L, which are mounted on gudgeons a a. The rocking 
levers are connected to the crank V V by the connecting rods E E. 
The space between the pistons, when at the end ot their instroke, 
forms the expanding or explosion chamber, the combustion chamber 
being shown to the right of the cylinder (J in Fig. 150, which 
is a vertical section of the motor. In this figure, S is the admission 
valve for petroleum and air, and it is worked by the rocking lever 
B, pivoted at N 1 . S 1 is the exhaust valve. By means of pinions, 
the shaft A 1 is made to revolve at half the speed ot the main shaft. 
One of the cams on the shaft A 1 works the exhaust valve S 1 , and 
the other works the rod or stem t, which normally engages with 
the end of lever B. On the suction or aspiration stroke the rod t 
lifts, and the other end of B depresses r, thus opening the valve 
S, which admits air and a few drops of petroleum. The chamber 
surrounding S is heated by a lamp (not shown) placed near L, 
this lamp keeping the ignition tube d incandescent. The petroleum 
is vaporised, and the explosive charge ignited on the completion 
of the compression stroke. Thus, there is no carburetter. Govern¬ 
ing is affected by a hit-and-miss device closing the admission 
valve when required. A ball governor R, on the main shaft, engages 
by means of a collar, m, with the rod or stem t, which is articulated 
at e. On the upper end of t, and also on the end of the lever B, 
is a finger C, the fingers missing contact when the speed increases 
and the governor-balls open. The lever B and the valve S, there¬ 
fore, do not work until the speed is reduced, and so fresh petroleum 
is not admitted to the combustion chamber. M (Fig. 151) is the 
winch handle for starting. The 6-brake h.p. motor consumes from 
244 1. to 2'98 1. (4-4 pt. to 5 25 pt.) of petroleum per hour. This is at 
the rate of from 4 to -49 1. ( 73 to '87 pt.) per horse-power hour. 

The Kane-Rennington motor has one or two vertical cylinders 
or four vertically inclined cylinders, arranged in pairs, according to 


TYPICAL PETROL MOTORS DESCRIBED. 


177 



Figs. 150 and 151. —Vertical Sections of Ivoch Petroleum Motor. 


M 




















































































































































































































































































































































178 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


the power needed. The admission is automatic, and the exhaust 
mechanical, and there is no governor. Carburation is accomplished 
without special apparatus by a process described on p. 111. Electric 
ignition is by a long secondary spark. Neither water nor flanges 
is used for cooling, the heat being absorbed by vaporising the 
petrol spirit inside the cylinder, whose walls are thin. 1 or starting 
the motor when petroleum is employed, Kane-Pennington has in¬ 
vented the devices represented by Figs. 152 and 153. The petroleum 
is admitted by the automatic valve 0 on to a pumicestone washer 
R, placed between the terminals S T of an electric circuit. I he 
current heats this washer sufficiently to immediately vaporise the 
oil. The spark produced by the igniter, one part of which (Q 1 ) 



is fixed, and the other part (Q) moves with the piston, ignites the 
mixture at the time of the final compression. Once the cylinder 
is suitably heated, the circuit is opened at S T, and the motor 
works as with petrol spirit. P is the exhaust valve for burnt gases. 

Gibbon’s motor, known as the Britannia, is an English motor 
with which petroleum can be employed. It has a single vertical 
cylinder with a combustion chamber and a distributor by the side. 
Admission and exhaust are operated by a so-called single valve, 
but which really is complicated by a circular slide valve worked 
mechanically. The carburetter is described on p. 108. Ignition 
is by prolongation of the tube forming the carburetter, heated at 
starting by an exterior lamp, but subsequently working by the 
heat of the successive explosions. To prevent the igniter being 
cooled by the fresh air it is surrounded by a case which is 
constantly filled with hot gases. The cylinder is cooled simply by 
the fresh air intended for the carburetted mixture passing through 
the jacket, which is provided with draught orifices. The 1 h.p. 
motor weighs 175 kg. (385 lb.) and measures 68 cm. by 98 cm. 



































TYPICAL PETROL MOTORS DESCRIBED. 


179 


(26 (S in. by 38*6 in.). These facts seem to make it unsuitable for 
motor cais; nevertheless it represents an interesting endeavour to 
employ petroleum, as do each o± the three motors described below. 

Ihe Faure motor has two vertical cylinders whose plunger 
pistons drive the cranks, which are at 180° (see Fks 154 and 

\ O 



Fig-. 154.— Faure Petroleum Motor. Fig. 155.— Valves of Faure Motor. 


155). Each cylinder is prolonged by an explosion chamber E, 
containing three valves e, o, i, for admission, exhaust, and ignition 
respectively. The first works automatically, and the other two are 
worked by levers and cams keyed on the intermediary shaft H, 
driven at half speed by motor shaft G by aid of gear, and which 
drives axle C by a chain transmission. The carburetter D uses 







































































































































































180 


THE AUTOMOBILE . 


petroleum as described on p. 108. Ignition is by incandescent 
tubes in the burner F. There is no special provision for cooling 
cylinders. Regulation is by a cord hooked to lever g on rod d, 
by pulling this cord the rod is made to engage two levers c, the 
heels of which are in the path ol the catches b on the exhaust 



valve levers a, and these levers shut by pressure of their springs. 
By slackening this cord springs are allowed to raise the levers c, 
the heels of which strike against the thrust pieces b, which prevent 
the exhaust valves from shutting. To avoid the injurious effect 
of heat on the joints they are placed in the cylinders and formed 
of metal rings alternating, fixed to the pistons with asbestos packing. 

In the Dawson petroleum motor (Fig. 156) the four-stroke 
cycle is obtained without the use of any valves. The piston deter¬ 
mines the periods of admission, explosion, and exhaust by rotating 



















































































TYPICAL PETROL MOTORS DESCRIBED. 


181 


during 1 its stroke ; this motion is obtained by a helicoidal gearing, 
the wheel of which forms one with the crank balanced by a counter¬ 
weight; whilst the pinion is keyed on the connecting rod attached 
by a ball-and-socket joint to the piston and guided above by a 
counter rod. The piston is extended by a long case perforated 
with two openings diametrically opposite, each working in front of 
a pair of oval ports made in the cylinder; one port in each of 
these sides is for admission and the other for exhaust. Ignition 
is produced electrically by a sparking plug a placed in the end of 
the cylinder; at c is shown a purge cock intended to facilitate 
starting. Explosion occurs inside the case, the circumference of 



Figs. 158 and 159. —Dawson Ignition Magneto Machine. 


which lias no water-tight segments. Up to 3 h.p. the cylinder 
has flanges, and cooling is effected by air; motors of greater 
power have water jackets. The crank dips into an oil bath in the 
bed plate, which for small tricycles is made of aluminium. For 
petroleum the inventor has constructed a carburetter, which is 
described on p. 108. In motors where ignition is obtained by 
an incandescent tube this is fixed to the right of a supplementary 
orifice of the cylinder (Fig. 157) and heated by a burner m, which 
shoots its flame on to the sides of an asbestos-lined chamber. 
This lamp is fed by petroleum vapour made in a worm which 
the oil enters under pressure through tube r lined with fibrous 
material. For this purpose the tap on this tube has the orifices 
a and g respectively employed for the passage of petroleum and of 
air to the carburetter, and the first is prolonged by a slot n which 
admits petroleum into the igniter. 

The Dawson ignition magneto machine (Figs. 158 and 159) is driven 




































































182 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


by a chain from the motor, the chain-wheel E driving the armature 
at a higher rate of speed through an epicyclic gear contained in the 
casing D ; this casing also serves for varying the moment of ignition, 
which is effected by giving it a rotary movement about the shaft and 
by thus altering the relative angular positions of the chain wheel and 
the armature. The pulsating current is conducted from a collector C 



Fig 1 . 161 .—Valves of Koser-Mazukier Motor. 


to the primary winding of an induction coil, of which the secondary 
or high-tension terminal is connected electrically to the terminal B. 
A distributing commutator, driven by a reducing speed gear, is fitted 
on the machine, and this distributor alternately connects the high- 
tension conductor with each of the four terminals, 1, 2, 3, and 4 
shown, from which separate wires lead to each of the sparking plugs in 































































































































































































TYPICAL PETROL MOTORS DESCRIBED . 


183 


the four cylinders of the Dawson motor. The cover of the interrupter 
case is held in place by the nut A. 

The Roser and Mazurier motor, shown by Figs. 160 and 161, 
has three vertical cylinders whose pistons work two cranks keyed 
at 180 . The two cylinders A B, working with petrol spirit or 
with petroleum, send their burnt gases to the third cylinder C, 
which is twice as big as the others, where air is heated previously 
compressed to avoid loss of work due to the sudden expansion of 
the burnt gases. This cylinder C works like a hot-air motor. Igni¬ 



tion is by tube or electricity. The small cylinders are water- 
cooled, and tire big one air-cooled. The two petroleum cylinders are 
on the four-stroke cycle principle, but with a difference of two periods 
with regard the one to the other; the hot-air cylinder gives one 
effective stroke per revolution. To the left of the motor shaft is 
a gearing which drives at half speed an intermediary shaft with 
seven cams acting on as many valves arranged in a line at the 
top part of the cylinders. In Fig. 161 at a and b and a 1 and b 1 
are the inlet and exhaust valves of the cylinders A and B; the 
burnt gases pass from b to c and b l to c 1 into the big cylinder, 
escaping finally by the large valve d. Ibis escape occuis only 
during a part of the return stroke of the piston in C, the valve d 




























































184 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


shuts prematurely, and the rest of the gases then is compressed 
in the end ot cylinder C, then reheated at this moment by the 
burnt gases admitted by one or other of the valves b b\ A 
governor controls the admission by a butterfly valve. The bed 
plate, hermetically shut, contains an oil bath into which the cranks 
dip. Experiments were made by the Compagnie des Moteurs Charon 



with a gas motor that gave 4T7 h.p. and consumed 682 1. (24 cubic 
feet) of gas per brake horse-power hour; with petrol spirit it gave 
4-96 h.p. and consumed 0447 1. (0*79 pt.) per brake horse-power hour. 

To complete the descriptions of the four-stroke cycle motors there 
remain to be described the small motors for motor cycles and 
voiturettes, which, as a rule, are well designed, and are interesting. 

The Leon Bollee motor (Figs. 162, 163, and 164) has a single hori¬ 
zontal cylinder with superposed valves, in a chamber adjoining the 
cylinder head; the exhaust valve b is worked by bell cranks and 






















































































































































TYPICAL PETROL MOTORS DESCRIBED. 


185 


a cam controlled by the centrifugal force governor housed in the 
fly-wheel. When speed increases beyond the proper limit the spread¬ 
ing of the governor-balls displaces a lever, which unhooks a tripper, 
then the valve no longer opens. Fig. 163 represents the tripper 
engaged, and Fig. 164 the same disengaged; contact is made by 
inclined planes, one on the tripper (on the left of illustrations), 
and one on the lever (on the right), these planes touching each 
other. The lever is hinged with the 
exhaust valve rod, the common joint of 
which can be seen. The carburetter 
used is described on p. 93, and ignition 
is by tube, heated by the burner shown 
in Fig. 92, p. 127. The cylinder is 
air-cooled by flanges. 

The de Dion-Bouton motor is dia- 
grainmatically represented by Fig. 165 
and 166, in which A is the carburetting 
tank; B air-inlet tube ; C metal plate; 

D float; E motor cylinder; G cam of 
exhaust valve, S 1 ; H silencer for ex¬ 
haust ; J worm; K motor pinion keyed 
on the shaft of fly-wheels ; L, gearing 
with the cog-wheel mounted on the 
axle of rear wheels; M handle of steer¬ 
ing bar breaking the electric circuit for 
sparking; N igniting device for explo¬ 
sive mixture; O blow-off tap for air; 

P accumulators ; R tap for air inlet or 
for explosive mixture ; R 1 motor inlet 
tap; S S L distributing and exhaust valves; T induction coil; U 
mechanical contact breaker of the induction coil. A long piston, 
with three segments, moves in the vertical cylinder ; the con¬ 
necting rods and disc crank, forming a fly-wheel, are enclosed in 
an aluminium case containing oil. There is no governor. The 
electric ignition has the variant described on p. 119. The 
cooling is by flanges. For the J h.p. type the cylinder has a 
diameter of 58 mm. (2 3 in.), and a piston stroke of 70 mm. 
(2 75 in.), and the normal number of revolutions is 1,400 per 
minute. By increasing the bore to 66 mm. (26 in.) the power 



Fig. 167. —Dome op de Dion- 
Bouton Tricycle Motor. 

















































186 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


is raised to lj h.p., and the thickness of the cylinder, then, 
is only 3 mm. (0T2 in.). It has 16 flanges projecting 19 cm. 
(7'5 in.), forming hoops. In the 1898-99 model the inlet valve is 
not placed, as in Fig. 166, by the side of the exhaust valve, but 



Fig. 168. 

Figs. 16S and 169.— 


Fig. 169. 

Gaillardet Petrol Motor. 


above (see Fig. 167). The inlet valve and its seat are simply 
placed above the suction hole, on a flat support, with an asbestos 
washer, not shown in Fig. 167. They are covered by a bent pipe, 
through which the carburetted gas enters. All is maintained by a 
bell-shaped piece, with open sides, a bayonet fastening being 
employed, this latter device greatly aiding inspection of the 










































































































































































TYPICAL PETROL MOTORS DESCRIBED. 


187 


valves. Owing to the radiation caused by the relatively large 
valve, and by the current of air passing through its openings, the 
bell assists in the cooling of the valve and the inlet nozzle; at 
each suction a greater weight of gas enters the apparatus, because 
its volume remains constant, and the temperature is less; thus the 
power of the motor is increased. 



Fig. 170. —Aster Water-cooled Petrol Motor. Fig. 171. —Aster Petrol Motor 

with Mixed Cooling. 


The Decauville motor has two vertical cylinders of the de Dion- 
Bouton 1J h.p. type, placed side by side; these are not cast, but are 
turned on a lathe, and their flanges are milled out of the solid, 
and consequently their sides may be made as thin as 2 mm. (0 - 8 in.). 
The cranks are keyed at 180°, and the fly-wheel is outside the case. 
There are two equally-timed explosions in a single revolution, one 
explosion in each half revolution, whilst there is no explosion during 
the next revolution. The constructors have endeavoured to balance 
the moving parts more than the shocks of explosions, and they esti¬ 
mate that they have succeeded in decreasing vibration, especially at 






























































































188 


THE AUTOMOBILE . 


great speeds. The carburetter in use is that described on p. 87. Igni¬ 
tion is electric. At 1,200 revolutions the motor gives normally 3 h.p. 

The Gaillardet motor is distinguished by the special form and size 
ot the flanges (see Figs. 108 and 169). The cylinder of the 2f h.p. 
motor has a bore of 80 mm. (3T5 in.), the piston stroke being the 
same, and a consumption of from 027 1. to 0 - 4 1. of petrol spirit per 
horse-power hour, the number of revolutions being about 1,800 and 
2,400 per minute. 

In one type of Aster motor around the cylinder head and the 
valves are flanges, cast solid with them, and around the cylinder are 
copper flanges, the superiority of which over iron is stated on p. 
135. Usually the Aster motor is of 2f h.p. A Phoebe voiturette 
at an Exhibition in Paris in 1899 had an Aster motor of 3J h.p., 
cooled by a flow of water. Some types of Aster motor are wholly 
water-cooled (Fig. 170) and some have a mixed system (Fig. 171). 

The Sphinx motor, with a bore of 70 mm. (2 - 75 in.) and a 
piston-stroke of the same, weighs 27 kg. (59 - 4 lb.), and working 
normally at from 1,200 to 1,800 revolutions yields 2J h.p. Its 
valve-box has flanges, and the gear case is of phosphor-bronze; 
ignition is by break spark. Sometimes two motors are joined, 
inclined at 15°, and their rods hinged to the same crank. 

The Minerva motor is air cooled on a somewhat original plan, 
there being an inner cooling arrangement in addition to the usual 
flanges. The upper end of the piston is prolonged by a tube which 
forms a smaller piston travelling in a smaller cylinder. High 
degrees of compression, as much as 42 kg. per cm. 2 (60 lb. per 
sq. in.), can be obtained without the maximum temperature ex¬ 
ceeding 280 C. (536° F.) after prolonged running. At the motor 
competition organised in 1899 by La Locomotion Automobile it 
was found that in a state of rest when cooling by the exterior wings 
was quite insignificant, the motor could run for more than two hours 
at full load without overheating. Other than in its system of cooling 
the motor is of no special interest. 

The Cyclone motor (Figs. 172 and 173), if one cylinder, gives 
It brake li.p. for a weight of 30 kg. (66 lb.); in another type two 
cylinders are juxtaposed with alternating cycles, their pistons simul¬ 
taneously driving the same crank; the weight is 50 kg. (110 lb.) and 
the power 2| h.p. A partition g at the top part of each cylinder 
prevents the new gases mixing with the burnt gases in the 


TYPICAL PETROL MOTORS DESCRIBED. 


189 


vicinity of the sparking plug. The exhaust valves are worked by 
cam G, in which is a double groove intersecting at x. At the 
top part of this groove a roller h engages; this is mounted in 
a fork, forming part of the lever H, which moves around axis i i, 
and the end of which lifts, at the required time, one or the other 
of the valve rods j. These rods are raised when the lever, 



Fig. 173. —Distributing Cam of 
Cyclone Motor. 


brought to 1 or 2 by the 

horizontal displacement given 

it by the figure-of-8-shaped 

groove, is lifted by the relief 

on the bottom of this last. 

% 

The motor performs only 800 
revolutions per minute, that 
is, 400 explosions per cylin¬ 
der ; consequently, it does 
not get very hot. 

The Noel motor has two exhaust valves, one at the top part of 
the motor and governed by it as usual, and the other at the lowei 
part of the cvlinder a little above the point where the piston stops in 
its return stroke. The second valve mentioned discharges prematurely 
Tie hottest gases of combustion : the ordinary valve allowing only the 
less hot gases to pass is less injured by hammering and sufteis less 
Tom corrosion. After the motor has been working several hours 
t is cool enough for the hand to be held on the cylinder, cylinder- 


Fig. 172. —Cyclone Petrol Motor. 

























































































































190 


THE AUTOMOBILE . 


head, and valve-boxes. The inlet valve is diametrically opposite the 
exhaust valve, where it neither heats nor fouls much. The igniter 
is near the inlet valve, and its point likewise does not foul. 

The Krebs motor (Fig. 174) has a cylinder inclined as illus- 



Fig. 174. —Krep.s Petrol Motor. Fig. 175.— Riancey Peteol Motor. 


trated, to facilitate lodgment. The two fly-wheels are enclosed 
in an aluminium case. The governor acts by choking the intake 
by means of a tap which more or less opens under the action 
of a set of levers worked by a cam mounted on the distributing 
shaft with the governor. This cam is formed of two parts, with 
different diameters, connected by a helicoidal incline. The car¬ 
buretter C is of the Phoenix pattern. Ignition is by tube I) heated 


















































































TYPICAL PETROL MOTORS DESCRIBED. 


191 


by burner E. The cylinder and cylinder-head are air-cooled with 
flanges ; the exhaust valve is cooled by water, which flows bv gravi¬ 
tation. F is the cap of the inlet valve and G the exhaust valve. 

The Riancey motor (Fig. 175) has two horizontal cylinders 
placed end to end with a common head. The one explosion 
drives two pistons in opposite directions (their reactions balancing), 
rocking levers oscillating around fixed points B B, and hooking on 
the cranks keyed at 180° on the motor shaft. One of these levers 
is connected with the rod working the exhaust valve E under the 
action of the cam placed on the intermediary shaft N. The bent 
strut on frame R R carries the main shaft M and the rocking- levers 
B, the latter being jointed to the connecting rod S; A is the 
admission valve. Incandes¬ 
cent tube or electric ignition 
is employed, but there is a 
fixed lead ; the igniting point 
can be modified only slightly 
at starting to prevent explo¬ 
sions in an opposite direction. 

The heavy fly wheel V is 
within a casing mounted 
upon the shaft. The varia¬ 
tions of speed (300 to 1,000 revolutions) are obtained by altering 
admission and expansion. The air-cooling is by flanges. Normally, 
the motor gives 2J h.p. 

The Loyal motor (Fig. 176) is of the two-stroke cycle type, and 
it has a single cylinder C. There is automatic admission and 
exhaust, the first being obtained by the valve A G in the bottom of 
the cylinder, and the second by valve B at about the centre. 
During the forward stroke there is successively (a) Explosion; 
(b) Partial exhaust beginning at the instant when the piston P 
has passed beyond the exhaust valve, and ending at the instant 
when internal pressure ceases to be equal to the atmospheric 
pressure increased by the pressure of the spring; (c) Suction of 
new gases. At the end of the stroke the new gases are near the 
cylinder head and the burnt gases near the piston. During the 
return stroke first there is compression until the resistance of 
valve B is overcome, then a second partial exhaust of the burnt 
gases alone, owing to the mere juxtaposition of them and the 



Fig. 176. —Loyal Petrol Motor. 


I 










































192 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


new gases without mixing until the piston passes the exhaust 
valves; thenceforth there is the real compression. There are no 
cams or eccentrics; the valves work simply by the variations of 
pressure caused by the motion of the piston. At starting ignition 
is produced by the nickel tube T heated with a Longuemare burner, 
but afterwards ignition is produced automatically owing to the increase 
of temperature caused by retaining part of the burnt gases. The 
cylinder is cooled by its flanges shown. The specified consumption 
is 049 1. (0'86 pt.) of petrol spirit per horse-power hour with a 
3 h.p. motor. The Loyal motor has given good results on tricycle. 

' The Dufour two-stroke cycle motor has a cylinder at both ends, 
and the inlet valve is automatic. Exhaust is operated by a circular 
slide valve surrounding the cylinder; it is pierced with holes on 
the circumference and worked by a cam. The motor shaft placed 
behind the cylinder is driven by two internal _ connecting rods at 
right angles. The centrifugal force governor prevents at the 
recpiired moment the opening of inlet valve. The motor is cooled 
by injecting water into the explosion chamber, the feed pump being 
driven by a cam mounted on the same shaft as that for exhaust. 
In its forward stroke the piston compresses, in a lateral chamber, 
air which is carburetted before entering the cylinder under pressure. 
This motor has not been employed for automobiles, it is thought; 
neither has the Conrad motor, in which distribution is operated 
by aid of long ports made in the piston, and two inlet and exhaust 
orifices facing each other at half the height of the cylinder. 

The Briggs motor has two parallel cylinders whose pistons drive 
cranks at 180 \ Each cylinder gives an explosion per revolution 
owing to a special device; a supplementary pump compresses the 
mixture, making it enter the explosion chamber at the end of each 
cylinder, which communicates with the explosion chamber by a valve. 

I he Gobron two-stroke cycle motor has a peculiar arrangement of 
the cylinder relatively to the crank shaft, as shown by the section, Fig. 
177. The combustion chamber, a, has an electric ignition plug at the 
end farthest from the piston, and has free exhaust ports (not shown) 
at a point which is uncovered by the piston at the end of its working- 
stroke. The piston has a hollow boss, e, on its upper face, and the 
bossis connected with a passage, g. The cylinder is air cooled, and is 
so constructed and attached to the closed crank chamber that the 
under side of the piston may act as a pump for drawing the explosive 


TYPICAL PETROL MOTORS DESCRIBED. 193 

mixture from the pipe c into the crank chamber, and for forcing this 
mixture through the passage d, and port u, into the combustion 
chamber when the piston is in the position shown by Fig. 177. The 
axis of the cylinder is tangential to the crank shaft in order that the 



Fig. 177. —Gobron 

Two - s TROICE 
Cycle Petrol 
U Motor. 


working stroke may be more rapid than the compression stroke, the 
inventor’s object being to reduce the amount of negative work done 
by the fly-wheel. The crank chamber b contains two fly-wheels j, 
with the crank pin k between them. The connecting rod h is fitted 
in the usual way, but carries the bent strip of metal s, which at each 
revolution dips into and splashes up the oil contained in the 
N 
















































































I 


194 THE AUTOMOBILE. 

chamber 1. The action of the engine is very similar to that of other 
two-stroke cycle motors. The piston is driven downwards by the 
explosion in the chamber a, and it then compresses a fresh mixture 
in the crank chamber; at nearly the end of a forward stroke the 
piston first uncovers the exhaust port and then opens free com¬ 
munication between the crank chamber and the combustion chamber, 
through the passages d, u, and g. The mixture is thus caused to 



take the place of the products of combustion, and the piston on the 
return stroke (it goes as far as the dotted outline f l ) compresses 
this charge in a, and also draws a fresh charge from a carburetter 
through the passage c into the crank chamber. This fresh charge 
enters by means of the hollow boss e, which enables the remaining pro¬ 
ducts of combustion to be driven from the cylinder and reduces the 
tendency for the incoming charge to pass out through the exhaust ports. 

The Goret six-stroke cycle motor (Figs. 178 and 179) may be men¬ 
tioned. The fifth and sixth period of the cycle, as is explained on p. 114, 
produce, after each explosion, a flush of pure air, which completely 
expels the burnt gases, and cools the cylinders. The three 


































































195 


TYPICAL PETROL MOTORS DESCRIBED. 

radiating cylinders have their pistons on the same crank. The 
regulation is by a needle valve varying the intake of petrol 
spirit into the carburetter, which totally atomises the amount ad¬ 
mitted. . There is electric ignition. As usual, the inlet valve is 
automatic. Each cylinder has a cam a, working a rod b , which 
lifts the exhaust valve placed at the side. The distributing cam 
a has a groove with special profile, with a small roller running in 
it, attached to the frame, and this works the distributing rod b 
with several side' contacts. At the extremity of this rod there is 
a conical ring, which, by means of a roller, works the valve of an 
atomiser. Thus atomising is not constant, but is simply and 
mechanically produced for each cylinder every three revolutions 
(six phases) of the motor axle. 

In the James F. Duryea motor the explosion is produced in a 
special tank, which acts somewhat as does the boiler of a steam engine. 
The petrol spirit enters by a small tube into a large one, where 
it is vaporised under the action of heat from a lamp. The vapour 
passes through a cylindrical nozzle at considerable velocity, and 
carries with it the requisite amount of air to the explosion 
tank, where the explosion causes a pressure of about 8A kg. per 
cm. 2 (121 lb. per sq. in.). A pipe runs from the explosion tank to 
the petrol spirit reservoir, so that in spite of the pressure in the 
tank the petrol spirit continues to descend. The intake of petrol 
spirit can be varied by aid of a valve on the feed-pipe. The 
double-acting effect obtained with such a motor would have great 
advantages for automobiles. 

The Diesel motor has not yet been adapted, it is thought, 
to automobiles, but as it is based upon principles new to auto- 
mobilism, and as it would be a desirable type for use on automobiles, 
a detailed description of it may prove welcome. In all combus¬ 
tion the temperature to which the fuel must be brought in 
presence of air before ignition is possible must be distinguished from 
the temperature produced during the chemical action of combustion. 
The temperature of combustion, strictly so called, always is attained 
after ignition by and during the combustion itself. Diesel maintains 
that in a motor the temperature of combustion should be pro¬ 
duced before and independently of combustion, consequently before 
ignition, and solely by a mechanical heating of pure air. This 
condition is a simple consequence of the principles upon which the 


196 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


Carnot cycle is based. Not less than from 100 to 200 atmospheres 
are needed to produce this temperature of combustion by simple 
compression in the strict application of the four-phase cycle, that 
is, first by compressing air at two or four atmospheres following 
an isotherm, and then to a pressure corresponding to the required 
temperature following an adiabatic. If, on the contrary, compres¬ 
sion following an adiabatic is produced from the outset a pressure 
of from 30 to 50 atmospheres suffices. Other theories are advanced 
in connection with Diesel’s idea, but for the present purpose these 



can be dispensed with. A motor, based on quite novel principles,, 
was designed by Diesel. Two combustion cylinders C (Fig. ISO) 
with plunger pistons P. are connected by valves b with an inter¬ 
mediary cylinder B ol greater diameter with piston Q, and by valves 
a, with an air-chamber L. The piston cranks P are parallel, and 
at 180° from that of the piston Q. The latter, through the valve 
d, sucks air; the piston as it descends compresses the air in cylinder 
B to several atmospheres, and drives it through the valve e into the 
air-chamber L. The piston P, in descending to position 1 sucks 
air from this chamber, and in ascending to position 2 brings it 
to the final pressure. While descending to position 3, the pul¬ 
verised carbon in funnel c falls into the cylinder C, where it burns. 
The gases of combustion expand and drive the piston to its lowest 



































































TYPICAL PETROL MOTORS DESCRIBED. 197 

position 1. At this instant valve b opens, whilst P ascends, and the 
gases continuing to expand fill cylinder B above piston Q, which 
descends; this is the working stroke. When Q is on the point of 
ascending, b shuts, and / opens to allow the waste gases to 
escape. Thus the cycle of each cylinder C comprises four phases 
or two revolutions, the two together giving one driving stroke for 
each revolution. It would have been very complicated to con¬ 
struct at once the compound motor described, and at first there 
was a inonocylindric engine fed with petroleum. The heavy 
compression, high temperature, and great speeds developed by 
this motor led to very great difficulties in construction of the 
various parts. In 1895 the experience gained in overcoming them 
was turned to account to build a second motor of 12 h.p., which 
gave remarkable results. At the end of 1896 was commenced the 
construction of a similar type of motor of 20 h.p., which was 
tested in the beginning of 1897. The 1895 motor was not pro¬ 
vided with a water-jacket, but there are certain practical advantages 
with a system of cooling, especially the greater power obtainable, 
and this consideration led to its adoption in the 1897 motor to 
which petroleum was conveyed by a pump. This motor works 
quietty and reliably, having been tested carefully by Professors 
Schroter, Gutermuth, and Sauvage, and by French and German 
engineers, and the results appear to be so harmonious that they 
may be regarded as final. The indicated thermal efficiency was 
found to be equal to 34 or 35 per cent, with the normal charge, 
and to 38 or 40 per cent, at half charge. These figures are 
about 50 per cent, greater than the best results hitherto obtained 
for the indicated efficiency of gas motors which, according to 
Dugald Clerk, never exceeds 27 per cent., and very often is 
below this. The mechanical efficiency of the engine is between 
71 and 75 per cent., that is to say, less than that of steam or 
internal combustion motors. The final efficiency, however, is not 
less than 26'6, which means that 26'6 per cent, of the heat of 
the fuel is transformed into effective work at the motor shaft. 
The increase of this efficiency demonstrates the superiority of the 
new system over the old. The consumption of petroleum per 
brake horse-power hour was only 240 g. (8'46 oz.) for the full 
charge, and 277 g. (9'76 oz.) for half charge. Reckoning the petro¬ 
leum at density 085, these weights are equivalent in volume to 


198 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


0-28 1. (0-49 pt.) and 0327 1. (0575 pt.) respectively. The but 
slight difference between the two quantities demonstrates the small 
increase in expenditure of fuel due to a decrease ol the charge. 
The thermal efficiency of the motor profits with the smaller charge, 
and so compensates for the relatively low mechanical efficiency. 
Compared with a motor of another type, for an equal number of 
revolutions the Diesel motor can give the ordinary power and 
be of smaller dimensions. As starting is accomplished by placing 
the air chamber and cylinder in communication, the motor is 
always ready to work, whether hot or cold, or whether it has 
been stopped for a few seconds or for several days. This would 
be an advantage in an automobile motor. Another advantage 
claimed for the Diesel motor is perfect combustion, there not being 
any fouling inside the cylinder and only odourless and almost 
invisible gases being expelled into the atmosphere, whilst the absence 
of carburetting and igniting devices allows a very simple construction. 

The first Diesel oil motor produced in England was made by Scott 
and Hodgson, of Manchester, at the beginning of 1901, for the Diesel 
Engine Company, of London. It has important points of difference * 
from previous Diesel motors made on the Continent, as it has but 
one horizontal cylinder, and works on the two : stroke cycle. The 
horizontal arrangement is not considered an improvement, as the 
vertical position better suits the valves, piston, and other working 
parts; but the two-stroke cycle is an advantage—for though 
in ordinary oil motors the chief objection to it is that some of 
the fuel escapes unburnt through the exhaust valves, or alternately 
in attempting to avoid this risk the charge is over-diluted with 
burnt gases—in the Diesel motor the scavenging charge is a 
mere air charge, the burnt gases are exhausted thoroughly, and 
the fuel gas is admitted to the cylinder only some time after the 
exhaust valve has closed. Ignoring its application to automobiles, 
it can be seen that for slow-speed stationary motors on the Diesel 
principle the two-stroke is better than the four-stroke cycle. Figs. 181 
and 182 are sketches explaining the action of the new motor. The 
working cylinder A has a bore of 20 cm. (7‘875 in.), and the front 
of it is open to the atmosphere. A pump cylinder D, of 23 cm. (9 in.) 
bore, is placed in tandem with the working cylinder, and the two 
pistons B and C are connected together by a rod, which passes 
through a stuffing box in the end of cylinder D. The stroke of 


TYPICAL PETROL MOTORS DESCRIBED. 199 

the pistons is 29 3 cm. (10 /5 in.), and the clearance space behind 
the woiking piston when at its inmost positions is very small; 
the actual compression space is 5 per cent, of the total volume of 
the cylinder when the piston is at its forward dead centre. The 
air enters the working cylinder A through a port J, from a 
reservoir formed in the bed of the engine, and a non-return 
valve is provided in this passage. In this reservoir the air 
is kept at a suitable pressure, the supply being maintained by 
the pump cylinder D. Oil is pumped into an injection valve L, 
on the top of the cylinder A, the oil being driven by an eccentric 
on the cam shaft; this shaft lies parallel with the cylinders, and 
is driven in the usual manner, but at the same speed as the crank 



V777777/7/7PS//./77///////// 


-> A\> 


v////////, 








7777S/7S7777777/,'?/A \ 


XTOS 




Fig. 181. 


Figs. 181 and 182. —Diesel Two-stroke Cycle Petrol Motor. 


shaft. The cam shaft also operates a centrifugal governor and 
carries three cams, respectively the exhaust cam, oil admission cam, 
and starting cam. The oil pump has a bore of 9*5 mm. ('375 in.) and 
a stroke of 15 9 mm. ( - 625 in.), and has a constant which corresponds 
with that of the working piston, and its delivery pipe always is 
in communication with the injection valve L; its suction valve, 
however, normally is held open by a spring, but is closed at the 
beginning of the delivery stroke of the pump for a period depending 
on the speed of the engine. Thus the pump draws a full charge 
of oil at each suction stroke, but returns some, or even all, of this 
during the delivery stroke, only the balance being forced into the 
injection valve; the maximum proportion of oil delivered to the 
valve L is 10 to 12 per cent, of the capacity of the pump. The 
exhaust valve K is placed in the end of the working cylinder, and 
is operated in the usual manner by a cam; it is opened just before 
the end of the forward stroke, and is closed just before the piston B 














































































200 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


has covered the port J. The injection valve L also is operated by 
a cam, which opens it practically at the rear dead centre, and allows 
compressed air from storage cylinders to inject the oil into the 
working cylinder; this injection valve always closes at the same 
time—about 12 per cent, of the forward stroke. The working 
cylinder A is water-jacketed completely, and the pump cylinder D 
is water-jacketed round the under side. A water-jacketed high- 
pressure air pump E takes air from the pump cylinder D and 
delivers it under pressure to the storage cylinders in the bed of 
the motor, which are used for injecting the oil and for starting the 

i 



motor. The air pump is driven by an overhanging crank-pin on 
the crank shaft, and the piston F reciprocates in the opposite 
directions to the larger pistons B and C; its cylinder has a diameter 
of 79-4 mm. (3125 in.), and the stroke is 13 cm. (5125 in.). The 
operation of the engine is as follows. The working piston receives 
an impulse during each forward stroke, at the end of which the 
exhaust valve K is opened. The products of combustion then pass 
out of the cylinder to the exhaust pipe, and as soon as the pressure 
in the cylinder is less than that in the air chamber in the bed of 
the motor air enters at J and scavenges the combustion chamber 
and fills it with pure air. The exhaust valve then is closed, and 
the piston covers the port J, after which the air charge is compressed 
to about 29 5 kg. per cm.~ (420 lb. per sq. in.). Next the oil admission 
\alve is opened by its cam, admitting compressed air from the 
storage cylinders. The entering air injects such oil as is being 




















































TYPICAL PETROL MOTORS DESCRIBED. 


201 


delivered to the valve by the pump, and carries it in a diffused 
spray into the working cylinder. The low-pressure pump D draws 
its charge through a suction valve and through the port G. On 
the return stroke it delivers this air through a port, H, into the 
reservoir bed, and this delivery continues until the piston C has 
covered the ports G and H, when the remaining air is raised to a 
pressure of about 2 ‘8 kg. per cm. 2 (40 lb. per sq. in.), and passes 
only into the high-pressure pump cylinder E; this latter compresses 
its charge into the storage cylinders. For starting the motor a 
separate cam is caused to act upon the valve L, and to allow the 



stored high-pressure air to enter behind the working piston B. The 
valve opens at the beginning;of the forward stroke, and it cuts 
off the admission at one-third of the stroke. This air drives the 
piston forward, and escapes through the exhaust valve K at the 
end of the stroke; at the same time oil is prevented from being 
delivered to valve L. After about ten revolutions, fuel is supplied 
and the engine runs normally. The power of the motor is from 
15 to 20 h.p. at a speed of from 215 to 240 revolutions per minute. 
Of course, there is a wide gulf between this stationary motor and 
one that would be suitable for automobile purposes, but the above 
detailed description, which is due to the Automotor Journal, shows 
that a great deal has been accomplished, and gives much promise 
for a really practical automobile motor on the Diesel system. 

The Andre Beetz motor (Figs. 183 and 184) is a rotary motor, 
and has two impulses during each revolution. The cylinder in 
which the piston works is a hollow moulding a b ; on the piston 























































































































202 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


are two projections V V 1 , diametrically opposite, making water- 
tight joints, and the cylinder has two palettes T T 1 , as illustrated. 
The charge previously compressed by the motor is admitted at 
A and ignited by L, the products of combustion escaping by 
port C. When the palette T 1 passes, the piston compresses the 
air which has been sucked through orifice D and forces it through 
valve B into an intermediary compartment. This compartment 
communicates with the top part of the valve box k l (Fig. 183); 
l is connected by a pipe with valve m, whilst between k and n 



there is a pipe connection to the entrance and exit of the 
carburetter. A bell crank lever worked by a cam actuates two 
valves at the same time. The air enters the carburetter by k 
and is discharged thence through ^ into the cylinder, which 
afterwards receives pure compressed air through l m. Admission 
is cut ofi* by the action of a governor on the cam. 

In the Dodement rotary motor (Figs. 185 and 186) the petrol 
spirit is filtered into the atomising chamber c, heated only for 
starting by a lamp placed at l (Fig. 185); the vapour is forced by a 
pump p into the explosion chamber d, where another pump com 
presses air, the mixture then being ignited electrically the gases" 
from the explosion open the spring valve 8, and passing through a 
tap r and guide nozzles (not illustrated) impinge on to the vanes 

































































































TYPICAL PETROL MOTORS DESCRIBED. 203 

of a turbine. A valve b, worked by the motor shaft by means of 
a light-angle gear, an endless screw mechanism, and a cam, admits 
an into the explosion chamber after each explosion. This motor, 
it seems, has been adopted for the Ponsard motor fore-carnage. 

The \ernet rotary motor (figs. 187 to 189) has two cylinders 
placed end to end, with a combustion chamber m the middle which 
serves them alternately. The gases produced by the explosion enter 
through a port into the space comprised between two plates placed 
radially on the axis of the cylinder; as one of these plates cannot 



turn backwards owing to an outside pawl, the other goes forward, 
moving the motor shaft with it, a spring, also on the outside, after¬ 
wards bringing the plates back towards each other for a new 
driving stroke which is alternated in the two cylinders. With one 
of the plates contact occurs only during the explosion, says the 
inventor; and with the other, contact is established by small rollers 
on an inclined plane; consequently there is gastightness without 
much friction; but this remains to be verified by experience. 
Carburetting is accomplished by a Greindel pump, driven by the 
motor, the pump sending a jet of air under pressure to meet a jet of 
petrol spirit. Distribution is by valves, levers, and V-shaped cam, 
the cam also governs admission. Ignition is by tube. 

In the Gardner-Sanderson motor (Figs. 190 and 191) the 



























204 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


explosion takes place in a chamber a, whence the gases escape and 
impinge on the blades made on the movable crown of the motor. 
In each of the two symmetrical chambers a there are two explo¬ 
sions per revolution. Oscillating valves, worked by cams (Fig. 191), 
serve to form and admit the explosive mixture, which is compressed 
outside the motor; there is electric ignition. Water circulates in 
lateral jackets communicating with corrugated cavities in the drum. 

Ihe Chaudun motor (Figs. 192 to 197) has two equal and parallel 
cylinders, intersecting each other so as to form an oblong 



lug. 192. Chaudun Rotary Petrol Motor, Fig. 193.— Two-way Cock on 

Chaudun Motor. 

section, and constitute the motor properly so-called, A, Fig. 192. Two 
others, cylinders Figs. 196 and 197, arranged in the same way, 
constitute a pump, A 1 , Fig. 192, for forming and compressing the 
explosive mixture. Each group contains two sectors or pistons 
C, D, Figs. 194 and 195, keyed in pairs on the shafts A and B, 
common to the apparatus A and A 1 , and connected together by 
equal spur pinions. The sectors forming a pair are always 
diametrically opposite, and, in revolving, these pistons come into 
contact sometimes with the sides of their cylinders and sometimes with 
the fixed sleeves E, F, which surround the shafts A and B. The 
explosive mixture formed by the pump A 1 is subjected to sufficient 
pressure to open the valve L, in spite of the resistance of its spring, and 
then enters the explosion chamber M, where it is ignited electrically. 





















































































































































TYPICAL PETROL MOTORS DESCRIBED. 


205 


In . Fig. 194 the motive action is produced in the top part of the 
cylindei on the sector C, the base of which communicates with the 
exhaust N, and at the same time to the other cylinder. The motor 
chamber gradually increases in size, and at the end of half a revolu¬ 
tion is almost at its maximum, whilst the chamber of the other 
cylinder (Fig. 195) has opened, and formed a second upper com¬ 
partment, where sector D will become motor, the lower compart¬ 
ment being still open for exhaust. Thus there are two explosions 



Figs. 194 and 195. —First and Second Positions of Chaudun Motor. Figs. 196 
and 197. —First and Second Positions of Chaudun Pump. 

per revolution. A pipe G, having a pure air valve regulated by a 
tap, connects the carburetter with the pump A 1 . In Fig. 196 
the left cylinder is filled with carburetted air sucked by sector 
A through channel I. The top of the right cylinder commences a 
similar suction, and below the previously admitted mixture is 
forced through the opening and the passage I. This mixture is thus 
compressed above the valve L (Fig. 192), until the right sector shuts off 
this opening from the right cylinder. At the same time the left sector 
(Fig. 196) unmasks the latter, and in turn forces the mixture through. 
About the end of the compression due to this sector it recommences 
suction (Fig. 197) whilst the right cylinder is full of carburetted air. 
On the piping J (Fig. 192) there is a two-way cock K, which can open 



















206 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


direct communication with the carburetted air pipe G, so as to allow of 
a supply of uncompressed explosive mixture being obtained when 
starting the motor. When the cock occupies the position shown 
in Fig. 193 the motor pistons suck direct into the carburetter 
the explosive mixture, which at the same time performs in A 1 a 
cycle favouring the complete mixture of its elements. 

The causes of petrol motors working unsatisfactorily may be 
considered briefly. In a motor whose charge is ignited electrically 
stopping or bad travelling is most frequently attributable to (1) 
defective compression, (2) defective ignition, and (3) defective car- 
buretting. Bad compression may be due to a leakage caused by a 
badly fitting sparking plug (the best joints are asbestos and copper 
or wire gauze), or by a loose valve (valves, especially exhaust valves, 
should be re-ground from time to time). Defective ignition usually 
is due to a faulty sparking plug. Defective- carburetting easily is 
detected with the bubbling carburetter, which generally is associated 
with electric ignition. A leakage in the pipe uniting the carburetter 
with the motor may spoil the composition of the mixture. In a 
motor ignited by incandescent tubes the main causes of defective 
working are failure of compression, which may totally prevent 
working of the motor, and, secondly, feeble ignition. It is desirable 
to be able to aid the combustion of the burner, which heats the 
tube by blowing in air with an indiarubber tube and ball. The 
method of carburetting, also, is to blame sometimes, and with the 
atomising carburetter usually employed when there is tube ignition 
it is rather difficult to find the weak point. Defective carburetting 
may be caused by an insufficient supply of petrol spirit (owing to 
the choking of the capillary tube), or by an excess (owing to the 
float not working); in the latter case dense smoke issues from the 
silencer. The governor may work faultily, and, to ascertain if this 
is the case, it must be disconnected to see how the motor works 
without it; take care to have slight carburetting, so that the motor 
does not race. It must be remembered that a new motor does not 
at first give the power for which it was built, because perhaps the 
cylinder is not perfectly reamed, the piston is too tight or is too 
small, or the segments have not yet properly fitted to the form of 
the cylinder. After a time these defects disappear. 

The chief defect of the petrol motor is the one emphasised in 
Chapter IX., lack of elasticity. This makes it necessary, when a 


207 


TYPICAL PETROL MOTORS DESCRIBED. 

variable power is needed, to have on the motor several cylinders, 
the number of which, brought into action, is proportional to the 
power required; but it would be much better to give the 
motor the elasticity of which it is deficient, for which purpose it 
would be necessary to vary either the richness or the degree of 
compression of the mixture, and perhaps both. It is shown on 
P* f how Hautier modified the second. The variation m richness 
appears at first to be simply the work of the carburetter alone, 
but generally the carburetter acts only by suction of the piston! 
this suction decreasing with the speed of the motor when it 
meets greater resistance, that is to say, when the feeding of the 
carburetter should be accelerated. The distributor, based upon the 
idea of mechanically introducing a certain amount of petrol spirit, 
appears a more suitable device with which to accomplish the 
variation. The charge of petrol spirit can easily be operated by 
aid of a drop-counter tap whose seat, containing cavities filled 
with petrol spirit, is made to turn at a speed proportional to the 
required energy; but regulation of the air and its mixing with 
the petrol are difficult in this device. Perhaps the difficulty will 
be overcome by combining this device with electric ignition. It 
is to be hoped that the Duryea and the Diesel motors will be 
applied to automobiles in spite of the complication caused by the 
auxiliary reservoir. 

Another inconvenience of petrol motors is the vibration caused 
in the cars, especially when at a standstill, and constructors 
rightly are endeavouring to balance the parts. The method of 
placing counter-weights on the heads of the connecting rods and 
at their junction with the motor shaft and pistons is simple, 
but balancing is only obtained for one speed. Balancing by in¬ 
verse motion of conjugated pistons appears to be a better method; 
though balancing by working two pistons in opposite directions 
by an explosion between them seems more perfect in theory. The 
petrol motor is still a new invention, and this fact gives hope 
that it will have important improvements. Carburetting, in par¬ 
ticular, might be improved, and the governing of ignition made 
more exact. The influence on the efficiency of the volume of gas 
in the cylinder and the degree of compression should be studied. 
Efficiency will be improved by decreasing the losses of heat 
caused by cooling the cylinders, these losses amounting sometimes 


208 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


to 30 per cent, of the heat units developed by the explosion. If a 
lubrication is found which does not decompose at 350° or 400 J C., 
the decomposing point of the oleonaphthas hitherto employed, the 
cylinders can be allowed to get hotter, and so much will be gained. 
The aim must be some more methodical cooling, either by aid of 
automatic valves regulating the current of water according to the 
temperature of the cylinder, or by the aid of a fan driven by 
the motor and sending a variable amount of air between the 
cylinder flanges (Diligeon system). A practical rotary motor is 
very desirable, but its invention for petrol seems to be more 
remote than for steam. 


209 


CHAPTER VIII. 

r 

ACCUMULATORS AND ELECTRIC MOTORS FOR AUTOMOBILES. 

Ihe accumulator is the only means of electric supply of practical 
use for driving an automobile, because an electrically propelled 
car, like other automobiles, itself must carry a supply of energy, 
and thus it excludes employment of the trolley running under" a 
conductor . in constant communication with generators at the 
power station ; it is the trolley system of electric traction that ex¬ 
perience has indicated as being most practical. True, it has been 
Proposed lor automobiles, but it will be impossible for a long 
time. Whilst electricity has become one of the most powerful 
agents of transport, still almost exclusively the system that is 
employed is the one using an overhead or underground conductor; 
for the few tramcars with accumulators which have been run 
have not proved economical generally. However, the Tudor ac¬ 
cumulator has given very good results on the tramcar systems of 
Hanover, Dresden, Hagen, Frankfort, Paris, Berlin, etc., some of 
which are really remunerative. With it, the increase of weight 
due to the accumulator is only from 15 per cent, to 25 per cent, 
ot the total weight, whereas not long ago it was 50 per cent. 
The overhead or underground conductor being excluded, there 
remains only primary or secondary batteries available for the 
automobile. Primary batteries, as their name indicates, directly 
transform chemical energy into electric energy, and, therefore, 
might be expected to supply electricity very cheaply; but such 
is not the case, because the materials—acids, salts, zinc (the 
attempts made to replace this metal by other substances have 
mostly proved fruitless) consumed by the battery are more ex¬ 
pensive than coal, from which indirectly the dynamo obtains 
its energy. Hospitalier, an enthusiastic and judicious advocate 
of the electric automobile, reckons that a bichromate of potash 
battery consuming the material strictly necessary for the produc¬ 
tion of 1 kilowatt-hour, say 1 kg. (2*2 lb.) of amalgamated zinc 

o 


210 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


at 74d. per kg. (3Jd. per lb.), and 1668 kg. (3'7 lb.) of bi¬ 
chromate of potash at lljd. per kg. (5Jd. per lb.), costs 2s. 2Jd. : 
including sulphuric acid the cost is 2s. 44d. It it is assumed 
that an electric car must carry a supply of energy of from 5 
to 10 kilowatt-hours, according to the weight of the car and the 
length of the journey, the chemical products alone would cost 
from 15 fr. to 30 fr. (11s. lOJd. to 23s. 9Jd.). The battery is 
not only costly, but is also very heavy, owing to the necessity 
of diluting the acid and dissolving the potash in a large amount 
of water, all being carried in heavy vessels. Again, its E.M.l. does 
not exceed 2 volts, and 0'2 volt may be absorbed by internal resist¬ 
ance. Thus it results that the specific power (quotient of its 
useful power divided by its weight) is only 1 to 2 watts per 
kg. (2*2 lb.), and its specific energy does not exceed 4 to 5 
watt-hours per kg. It need hardly be remarked that for traction 
purposes the electric generator should possess great specific 
power, so as to be able at a given moment, as. at starting, 
ascending a steep gradient, etc., to develop a considerable power 
and great specific energy to be able with slight weight to propel 
the car for a sufficient length of time. Employment of primary 
batteries, then, is inadmissible. 

As regards accumulators, that is, secondary batteries, some years 
ago they were not any more practical than primary batteries, for 
in 1881 the Faure type hardly gave as power and energy 1 watt 
and 7 watt-hours per kg. (2'2 lb.) of total weight, which is much 
the same as that given by the primary battery. However, the 
Fulmen type actually yields a specific power of 8 to 10 watts and 
a specific energy of 20 to 30 watt-hours per kg. Progressing in the 
same direction, the 2 to 3 kilowatt electric motor, which in 1881 
weighed from 30 kg. to 40 kg. (66 lb. to 88 lb.), with an effi¬ 
ciency of only 60 per cent., weighed in 1897 from 15 kg. to 20 kg. 
(33 lb. to 44 lb.) per kilowatt, and its efficiency was 85 or 90 per 
cent. This advance rendered possible the adoption of electricity 
for automobiles, as was proved by the Paris cab trials of 1898 
and 1899. 

Every battery which does not give an appreciable quantity of 
volatile products can constitute, theoretically, an electric accumu¬ 
lator, but as yet good results have been obtained with the three 
following combinations only:— (a) Lead-and-lead accumulator, with 


211 


accumulators and electric motors. 


sulphuric acid and water. ( b ) Lead-and-zinc accumulator, with 
sulphuric acid and water, (c) Zinc and copper accumulator, with 
potash or caustic soda solution. The last gives only a small E.M.F., 
0-8 volt per cell. The second would give a considerable E.M.F.* 
say 2-4 volts, and its zinc negative plates would be much lighter 
tian lead plates; but the difficulties in charging have been regarded 
up to the present time as prohibitory. However, Hiker, of Brooklyn, 
employs accumulators of lead and zinc, some details of which are 
given when mentioning his cars (see p. 544), and the possibility of 
employing a lighter substance than lead, and capable of forming 
a powerful and efficient accumulator, is not despaired of. Pisca 
does not doubt the ultimate issue: “ The theory is formed,” he 
says, “ we must compel the substances selected to follow the 
path hidden by the difficulties of execution but indicated by 
calculation.” Edison has raised hopes of a lighter and more 
powerful accumulator (see p. 219). 

The lead-and-lead accumulator for traction consists of spongy 
lead negative plates and of peroxidised lead positive plates dipping 
into dilute sulphuric acid. The difficulty is to obtain a sufficient 
adhesion between the active material and its support to resist 
variations of volume and cohesion inseparable from periodical 
transformations upon which the working* of the accumulator depends. 
Usually the support consists of grids in which pellets of the active 
material are placed. Sometimes, as in the Phoebus accumulator, 


the material is placed between two inter-crossing gratings, in which 
case it forms a continuous piece. In accumulators intended for 
traction, the difficulty of getting sufficient adhesion is aggravated 
by the necessity of reducing the weight of the supporting 
grid as much as possible in order to increase specific power and 
energy; also, the vibrations tend to detach the active material. 
When the latter is formed without pasting, the cell is of the 
Plante type. The method is little employed, on account of the long 
time taken to form the battery. In nearly every case the 
mechanically deposited pasted formation is employed. This type, 
invented by Eaure, adapts itself to the most varied forms of the 
grids, which secure the pellets of active material. To obtain in 
this type a considerable specific discharge and capacity very thick 
plates must be avoided, as also excessively wide sockets, which 
would not give the active material sufficient contact with the support 


212 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


and electrolyte. It may then be concluded with Hospitalier that, 
until further developments, traction accumulators will be all or 
nearly all lead-and-lead accumulators (ordinary soft lead for negative 
plates and antimony-lead for positive) of Faure formation, and 
mechanically applied oxides. Certain accumulators are seen with 
positives ol the Plante formation. Wallace Jones considers that 
this mixed solution will supersede others. Wythe Smith goes 
further, and considers that perhaps the Plante element, more or 
less modified, will have to be adopted. Connection between the 



Fig-. 198. —Lamina Accumulatok. 


various plates is made by cross-pieces of the same metal, or alloy, 
as the plates themselves, that is, of soft-lead and antimony-lead. 
The cross-pieces are fastened by screwed bolts and nuts of 
antimony-lead, if it is wished to be able to take the elements 
apart. 

To prevent contact between the positive and negative plates, 
round indiarubber rings, 5 mm. to 8 mm. (02 in. to 0’3 in.) 
in diameter, are placed at the edges of the plates; they are 
vertical, so as not to facilitate short circuits by arresting detached 
particles of the active material. For traction accumulators very 
thin sheets of ebonite or of celluloid are often employed perforated 
with holes from 1 mm. to 2 mm. (0*04 in. to (h08 in.) in diameter, 
the total area being equal to at least one-third the area of the 





















































213 


ACCUMULATORS AND ELECTRIC MOTORS. 

sheets. Thus the resistance to the current is negligible, and the 
sheets are perfect safeguards against short circuits. Although 
a strong, solution of sulphuric acid is not very favourable to 
preservation of the electrodes, Hospitalier does not hesitate to 
recommend it for this type; a density of 1'32 (35° Baume) seems 
to him necessary to obtain a sufficient E.M.F. discharge and to 
reduce the weight carried. It is also for this last reason that the 
receptacles are made as light as possible; celluloid, which is being 
abandoned, would be the ideal material were it not so inflammable'; 



Accumulator Plate Complete. 


in fact, it has caused several fires. Ebonite is now used; perhaps 
some day it will be possible to employ ambroine, pegamoid, canvas 
lacquered hot under pressure, or compressed cardboard coated with 
indiarubber or lacquered. The lid must be sealed to prevent 
spilling of the liquid during the journey, but a small hole is made 
in it to allow the gases to escape during the charge. Dimensions 
of the grids may vary much, but their number remains constant 
at about 40 or 44, owing to the advantage there is in being able, 
when charging them, to place them on the ordinary supply 
circuits at 110 volts and for changes of speed to divide them 
into four equal batteries. Some constructors, like Bouquet, 
Garcin and Schivre, and Patin, employ special accumulators, 
regarding which they give hardly any details. Most makers 
employ ordinary commercial types which there has not been 



















214 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


time to adapt to their new service. In addition to those about 
to be described, those of Gadot, Faure-King, and Bristol may be 
mentioned. 

The Lamina accumulator of the Plante type (Fig. 198, p. 212) is 
employed by Elieson. Each of its plates is formed by a number of 
sheets of lead perforated and corrugated horizontally and vertically 
alternately. This shape gives the plates great surface and free cir¬ 
culation to the acid. The plates are enclosed in a perforated lead 
casing, which, says the inventor, maintains the active material 
very well. It is stated that the accumulator can be short-circuited 
without any deterioration, and this last advantage is valuable if it 
exists. The type 17*5 cm. (6’9 in.) long, 10 cm. (3’94 in.) thick, and 
325 cm. (12*8 in.) high, having a quantity capacity of 100 ampere- 
hours with a discharging current of 20 amperes, and 120 ampere- 
hours with 10 amperes, weighs 12-23 kg. (27 lb.). From this it 
appears that a battery of forty cells giving 8 available kilowatt- 
hours weighs 500 kg. (1,100 lb.). Thus the weight' of battery per 
kilowatt-hour is 62 kg. (136’4 lb.) with a discharge of from 3 to 
3-5 watts per kg. (2 2 lb). 

The Fulrnen accumulator is by far the most commonly employed 
up to the present time, at least by French Constructors. Figs. 199 
and 200 (p. 213), taken from a photograph, show the two parts of a 
plate, and Fig. 201 its aspect when assembled. The very light grids 
are of cast antimony-lead. In the type illustrated they are divided 
by transversal and longitudinal bars into thirty compartments, each 
subdivided into a dozen small cells. One of the frames has round 
dowels or pins, corresponding to openings cast in the other, into 
which they enter when the plates are paired. The sides of the 
frame slant inwards, and all the inner bars are triangular in 
section, having one angle likewise inwards, so that the hollows 
formed between these frames are dovetails in which the inlaid 
oxide is held fast. At the same time as the active material is 
being suitably compressed the pins of one frame are forced into 
the holes in the other, and, thus firmly secured, the plate contains, 
set in its squares, 360 pellets. The plates thus formed are placed 
in ebonite cases, and rest on cross-pieces also of ebonite. The 
ebonite lid has an opening for filling, and for the passage of the 
connecting strips, the hole being closed by a plug and pure india- 
rubber washers. Hospitalier, who tested this accumulator in his 


ACCUMULATORS AND ELECTRIC MOTORS. 


215 


laboratory, supplies the following particulars:—The cell (B 13) 
which he more especially studied contains 13 plates. An element 
always has an odd number of plates in order to enclose the 
positives by negatives; without this precaution the positives, being 
unequally attacked, would be warped. The plates are 18*5 cm- 
(7*3 in.) high, 95 cm. (37 in.) wide, and 4 mm. (0T6 in.) thick, 
forming a checker of 24 rectangular pockets. With these separate 
plates, and the celluloid case, it weighed 7-5 kg. (165 lb.). With 
ebonite, which is now exclusively employed for making the boxes 
instead of celluloid, owing to the inflammability of the latter, there 
is an increase in weight of 3 per cent. During 5 hours it supplies 
normally a current of 21 amperes—that is, 1 ampere per dm. 3 of 
surface in the positive plate; moreover, it can give, with reduction 
in its capacity, up to 50 amperes in continuous discharge, and 
100 amperes for an instant. At the normal discharge in 5 hours, 
the E.M.F. of a single cell is D9 volts on the average ; the capacity 
is 105 ampere hours, and the power 21 amperes x T9 volts, 
equals 40 watts; the available energy is 200 watt-hours. If these 
various figures are divided by the weight 7 '5 kg. (16'5 lb.) of 
the element, most of the specific constants given in the following- 
table are obtained. 




< 

A • 


p 7 ! 

*3 . 

?H <X> 

d ?H 



Particulars of Accumulator. 

ri 

j2 £3 

r cS 2 

C/3 s 


<D 'O) 

C/3 

02 

2 



<D 

a 

CD ■ 
f-t O 

m 

• rH 

> 

) ~i >—* 

'a o <d 

r-i £ 

rO 

8 

c3 

O 


r—H 

Zj 

A b. 

r-H 

A 

o p,nd 

o 03 


02 

• rH 


pH 

pH 

PP 

ca 

PP 

Ph 

Ph 

Number of plates in ordinary cell 

13 

4 

23 

7 

13 

15 

13 

13 

Specific discharge in amperes 
per kg . 

3 

T6 

1-87 

2-17 

3 

2 

2*2 

Specific useful power m watts 
per kg. ... • • • • • • • • • 

5'3 

3 

3-65 

4-1 

53 

3*7 

42 

Specific capacity in ampere- 
hours per kg . 

14-6 

8 

9-37 

7-76 

21 

9-9 

6-6 

Specific useful energy in watt- 
hours per kg. ... . 

26 

15 

18-25 

147 

27-6 

18-5 

12-6 

Specific weight in kg. per kilo¬ 
watt-hour 

37-5 

65 

54-6 

68 

36-2 

54 

79-2 


It must not be forgotten, when fixing the specific constants of 
the battery to be used, that the more moderate their rates of 
discharge the longer do they last. 





















216 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


Ihe Faure-Sellon-Yolckmar accumulator made by Vails and 
Co. has pure lead negative plates with very small pockets (Fig. 
202). The positive plates (Fig. 203), also of pure lead (the use 
of soft lead compensates for the gradual fall of the active 
material), have a rather thick core upon which are horizontal and 
vertical grooves arranged to prevent loss of the general rigidity. 
A thin sheet of perforated ebonite placed on the plates prevents 
the fall of the active material, and another corrugated plate assures 
insulation. The ebonite cases are shut or simply covered with a 



Fig. 202 .—Faure-Sellox-Volckmar Negative Plate. 


plate of the same substance to prevent the liquid being spilled. 
The normal cell has 23 square plates, each 145 cm. (57 in.) 
wide, and weighs 1595 kg. (35 lb.). The light and extra light 
cells have respectively 19 and 13 plates, and weigh 11-4 kg. (25 
lb.) and 8 kg. (17 6 lb.).. It gives a current of 35 amperes for 
5 hours, that is, 054 amperes per dm. 2 of positive surface; the 
F.M.F. aveiages 1 9 volt, capacity, 135 ampere-hours ; power 48 
watts;, available energy, 240 watt-hours. The specific constants are 
given in the table on p. 215. 

The Ideal accumulator is used on the Still electric vehicles; each 
cell, about 1524 cm. by 127 cm. by 8’89 cm. (6 in. by 5 in. by 3 5 i n ) 
contains four pairs of plates which are of the Faure type, each beino- 
of lead, pasted as usual. In the plates, strips are cut horizon¬ 
tally, these strips being twisted like the laths of a Venetian blind 










































ACCUMULATORS AND ELECTRIC MOTORS. 217 

Thiee lubbei bands keep each plate together and allow for expansion 
and contraction, and ebonite feet and forks are placed under and 
between the plates. The normal charging rate is 20 amperes for 3 
hours, but in emergencies the full charge can be given in H hours 
The normal discharge is from 12 to 15 amperes, but on occasion from 
40 to o0 amperes can be obtained without injuring the battery. A 
capacity of 22 watt-hours per kg. (10 watt-hours per lb.) of plate is 
claimed by the makers, and though this is not very high, the known 
long life of the Ideal cell is a compensation. 



IssssMUiS 


WBMm 


mam 



lliliilhiili 



HiH! 



Fig. 203. —Faure-Sellon-Volckmar Positive Plate. 


In the Pul vis accumulator the positive plates are of lead 
about 9 mm. (0‘35 in.) thick, and on both the surfaces there 
are horizontal grooves very close together which are filled with 
impalpable lead powder. The negatives are similar to the posi¬ 
tives, only the plates are thinner and they have horizontal ribs at 
intervals of 4 mm. to 5 mm. (016 in. to 0-2 in.), with a dove¬ 
tail profile to better retain the active material. The ends of the 
connections are soldered to a cylindrical lead bar which has a 
copper core. The plates rest on two ambroine prisms, intended 
to form a free space between the plates and the bottom of the boxes, 
which are also of ebonite; they are separated by sheets of 
ebonite, corrugated and perforated. The cell T7 is composed of 
7 plates, 15 cm. x 19 cm. (5*9 in. x 7 5 in.), and weighs 16 kg. 
(35 2 lb.). It gives a current of 30 amperes for 5 hours, say 0T56 































218 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


amperes per dm. 2 of working positive surface; the working E.M.F. 
is 1*95 volts; capacity, 150 ampere-hours; power, 30 amperes x 1*95 
volts, equals 58*5 watts; available energy, 202 watt-hours. 

The accumulator of the Societe Anonyme pour le Travail 
Electrique des Metaux has the negative plates, based on the 
Faure type, formed by a lead grid serving as support to spongy 
lead pellets obtained by reducing lead chloride. The positive 
plates, of the Plante type, are formed by corrugated bands of 
lead superposed and united with each other by a special process. 
The cells actually employed for the cabs of the Paris Compagnie 
Generale des Yoitures consisted of 13 plates, each measuring 210 mm. 
x 110 mm. (8*2(3 in. x 4*3 in.), resting on an ebonite support and sepa¬ 
rated by corrugated and perforated ebonite plates; they are enclosed 
in ebonite cases and weigh 17 kg. (37*4 lb.). They normally give 
a current of 37*7 amperes for 34 hours, say 1*3 amperes per dm. 2 
of positive working surface ; the useful E.M.F. is 1*9 volt; capacity, 
132 ampere-hours; power, 71 watts; available energy. 250 watt- 
hours. Specific constants are given in the table on p. 215. 

The Bouquet, Garcin and Schivre accumulator has no particular 
feature from the structural point of view. The inventors, however, 
claim for it an exceptional specific capacity (20 to 22 ampere- 
hours). On an automobile at the normal rate of discharge in six 
hours the battery of 15 plates would give one horse-power hour 
with a weight of about 126 kg. (277 lb.). A recent type has a 
greater specific efficiency and occupies less space. 

The Phoebus accumulator constructed by Kaindler has its active 
material placed between two parallel grids made of antimony-lead, 
and strongly fastened together; this material thus forms one 
continuous mass instead of being in separate pellets. The ordinary 
cell comprises 13 plates, each 95 mm. (3*74 in.) wide, and 160 mm. 
(6*3 in.) high; it weighs 7*85 kg. (17*3 lb.), and normally is dis¬ 
charged in 8 hours. 

The Pisca accumulator is constructed with a view to lasting 
power rather than great specific capacity; the plates vary from 
3 mm. to 4 mm. (0*12 in. to 016 in.) in thickness, the negative 
plates being a little thinner than the positive ; their edges slide in 
the vertical grooves in two opposite sides of the ebonite case, 
which has a lid with double partition that prevents the acid from 
being spilled without impeding the escape of the gases. The 


ACCUMULATORS AND ELECTRIC MOTORS. 219 

noimal discharge takes 3 hours; if it is effected in If hours the 
capacity is only 92 per cent, of its normal value; if, on the 
contiary, it is extended over G hours the capacity is increased 

by 20 per cent. I he average cell having 13 plates weighs 21 kg. 
(46 lb.). " 

1 he Blot-Fulmen accumulator is made of Blot positive shuttle 
plates of the Plante type and Fulmen negatives. These plates 
lest on supports placed on the bottom of the ebonite case, and 
are insulated by sheets of corrugated and perforated ebonite; the 
connections are made of antimony-lead. The positive plates, 
8 mm. (0 315 in.) thick, weigh 560 g. (19'74 oz.); the negatives, 
4 mm. (0T6 in.) thick, weigh 300 g. (10'6 oz.). Its capacity is 
twelve ampere-hours. The number of plates varies from 11 
to 25; the element of 21 plates employed by Jenatzy for the 
delivery cart of the Magasins du Louvre, shown in 1899, Aveighs 
25 kg. (55 lb.), and has capacities of 250, 230, 200 ampere-hours 
Avitli respective discharges in 10, 5 and 3 hours. 

In A. T. Edison’s neAv accumulator much interest has been evinced 
since June, 1901, Avhen Dr. Kennedy read a paper upon it at the 
American Institute of Electrical Engineers. The accumulator Avid 
very shortly be on the market, and until then it is not advisable to 
express any opinion as to its merits ; hoAvever, the claim is set up 
that it Avill ansAver admirably for automobiles. It is a nickel-iron cell, 
the negative pole or positive element being of iron and corresponding 
to the zinc of a primary cell or the spongy element of a secondary 
cell, Avhilst the positive pole or negative element, corresponding to 
the carbon of a primary cell or lead peroxide of a secondary cell, is a 
superoxide of nickel. The structural material is nickel-steel and the 
electrolyte is an aqueous solution containing preferably 20 per cent, 
by weight of potassium hydroxide (potash), the freezing point of the 
electrolyte being, —30° C. (=29° F.). According to Dr. Kennedy’s paper, 
the positive and negative plates have the same structure mechanically, 
only the chemical contents of their pockets differing. Each plate is a 
sheet of steel 061 mm. ('024 in.) thick in Avhich rectangular holes 
liaA r e been stamped to form a grid. A typical plate has three roAvs of 
eight holes, tAventy-four holes in ad, and each hole or recess is filled 
Avith the pocket or shadow box of nickel-plated steel containing the 
active material, the pockets projecting slightly beyond the surface of 
the steel grid. The pockets are perforated Avith numerous fine hoies 


220 


TIIE AUTOMOBILE. 


to admit the electrolyte to the active material, which is in the form of 
rectangular cakes or briquettes. After the boxes of active material 
have been placed in the grid, the whole is subjected to great pressure 
so as to close the boxes and clamp the whole mass into one solid and 
rigid steel plate. The nickel-plating of both grids and boxes assures 
good electrical connection between them. The positive briquettes, 
corresponding to zinc in a primary cell, are made by mixing and 
compressing together a finely divided iron compound with a nearly 
equal volume of flakes of graphite, the latter not having any 
chemical action, but merely assisting the conductivity of the 
briquettes. The negative briquettes, corresponding to the carbon in a 
primary cell, are made as above, a nickel compound being substituted 
for the iron. The weight of the electrolyte is expected to be not more 
than about 20 per cent, of the weight of the plate or 14 per cent, that of 
the whole cell. Dr. Kennedy gives the initial voltage of discharge after 
recent charging as T5 volts, and the mean voltage of full discharge as 
IT volts approximately. The normal discharging current rate is 0*93 
amperes per dm. 3 (8-64 amperes per sq. ft.), and the storage capacity of 
the cell per unit of total mass is 3085 watt-liours per kg. (14 watt- 
hours per lb.); that is, the battery weighs 324 kg. (7T28 lb) per 
kilowatt-hour or 24 - 2 kg. (53 3 lb.) per electrical horse-power-hour. 
The mean normal discharging rate is 8'82 watts per kg. (4 watts per 
lb.), but the cell may be discharged at a relatively high rate in one 
hour approximately at a rate of 2646 watts per kg. (12 watts per lb.). 
Dr. Kennedy says that the Edison cell does not appear to be injured bv 
overcharging or high rates of discharging, only the electrical efficiency 
suffering under such treatment. Only every-day practice under the 
hard conditions of traction will show whether all the claims made for 
this cell can be substantiated in fact. 

The table given on p. 215 demonstrates how the specific constants 
vary from one system to another, but as other interesting elements 
are not there estimated, such as durability, the figures there given 
are far from comparable. Their diversity proves only that the 
typical characteristics of the traction accumulator are yet far from 
being wed defined. It was with the object of supplying this de¬ 
ficiency that the Automobile Club of France organised a trial 
competition, which was held in November, 1899, and which continued 
until ad the batteries were out of service, although a period of 
six months Avas not to be exceeded. Its lessons cannot fail to 


ACCUMULATORS AND ELECTRIC MOTORS. 


221 


be instructive, and to be the source of considerable progress. The 
figuies given in the table on p. 215 were determined by testing 
fixed cells, but they may be accepted for automobile accumulators, 
because the periods of rest which frequently interrupted the dis¬ 
charge of tiaction accumulators and the motion in running favour 
diffusion of the liquid; consequently they permit calculation of 
the weight of accumulators necessary to run an automobile of a 
certain weight in certain known conditions of speed and of road 
profile. do assure propulsion of a car weighing one tonne 
(practically one ton) at a speed of 18 km. per hour (5 m. per second), 
quite sufficient for town work, it is requisite, with a co-efficient of 
traction of 25 per cent. (25 kg. per tonne) (56 lb. per ton), to give 
at the wheel tyre a power of 25 x 5 := 125 kgm. (904 ft.-lb.), 
this being the equivalent of about 1,250 watts. Assuming efficiencies 
of 0'8 for the electric motor, and 0'9 for transmission from its 

shaft to the axle, the accumulators should furnish_ 1,250 _=say 1 800 

0-9 x 0-8 

watts. They will be able to do so at the rate of 5 watts per kg. 

if their weight is = 360 kg. (792 lb.), say 36 per cent, of 

that of the car; and since in 1 hour they will expend 18,000 watt- 
hours to run the car for 18 km. (11*2 miles), this will be equivalent 
to an expenditure of 100 watt-hours per kilometre tonne (a kilometre 
tonne is equivalent to the work done in conveying 1 ton for 0 6 
mile). These figures are somewhat greater than those obtained by 
Morris and Salon at Chicago, which varied from 84 to 92 watt- 
hours per kilometre tonne; but, as Hospitalier remarks, the ex¬ 
periments of the American engineers were made in eminently 
favourable circumstances, and the roads, especially, were very 
level. The hackney carriage trials of 1898 demonstrated that the 
expenditure could be reduced to 80 watt-hours per kilometre tonne. 
The accumulators giving 25 watt-hours per kg. (2 - 2 lb.) can keep 
up this speed of 18 km. (11*2 miles) per hour for 5 hours; that 
is, they can run the car 18 x 5 — 90 km. (56 miles) without re¬ 
charging. Hospitalier thought these figures should be reduced by 
one-third so as to reckon losses due to stoppages, starting, errors 
in steering, and rising gradients. The vehicles which took part in 
the French hackney carriage trials of June, 1898, in nearly every case 
ran considerably further than the prescribed 60 km. (37 miles), 




222 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


and one of them even travelled 105 km. (65*23 miles). Yet in none 
of these vehicles did the proportional weight of the accumulators 
reach 36 per cent, of the total weight when loaded; it varied from 
26 per cent, to 32 per cent. With such a proportion there is a 
somewhat large margin for the weights of the motor of the trans¬ 
mission gear and of the car and the passengers. Hospitalier estimates 
as follows the relative weights of the various parts composing a 
car to carry two passengers and driver:— 


Parts of Car, etc. 

Weight in kg. 

Weight in lb. 

Weight in kg. 

Weight in lb. 

Accumulators 

Motor and transmis¬ 
sion gear ... 
Coupling, connections, 
accessories ... 

Body,frame,and wheels 
Two passengers and 
driver 

120 to 150 

50 to 80 
300 to 400 

210 to 220 

264 to 330 

110 to 176 
660 to 880 

462 to 484 

300 to 350 

}> • 680 to 850 

660 to 770 

1,496 to 1,870 



Totals, 980 to 1,200 

2,156 to 2,640 


The figures in the last two columns are very nearly those of the 
two-seat cabs ’which took part in the hackney carriage trial: thus 
in the Jeantaud drojki and the Krieger victoria the weights of the 
accumulators are 340 kg. (748 lb.) for total respective weights of 
1,050 kg. and 1,180 kg. (2,310 lb. and 2,596 lb.). For cars with 
four seats the respective figures increase to 450 kg. and 1,770 kg. 
(990 lb. and 3,894 lb.) in the Krieger cab, and to 450 kg. and 
1,790 kg. (999 lb. and 3,938 lb.) in the Jeantaud landaulet. The 
proportion of these weights fall considerably, being about 25 per 
cent, instead of 33 and 30 per cent. 

The advantages of the electric motor from the point of view 
of traction will now be considered. The accumulators send their 
current to the electric motor which drives the car; the torque 
furnished varies with the number of conductors on the armature, 
the intensity of the magnetic field and of the current. As will 
be explained, the two latter may be caused to vary and conse¬ 
quently the torque, in fact the latter may attain values up to 
eight times the normal, thus affording a valuable elasticity for 

























ACCUMULATORS AND ELECTRIC MOTORS. 


223 


starting and extra strains. There is nothing like this in the 
Petrol motor, the torque of which is constant; the only available 
method to make the latter vary is by change of speed (see p. 238). 
Moreover, as the speed of the motor decreases the power may increase 
and inversely: thus the motor is self-regulating. In certain 
circumstances the power may reach zero and then become negative 
in value, the motor acting as a brake and working as a dynamo, 
being then utilisable to recharge the accumulators. It is by 
means of the controller that the variations necessary for altera¬ 
tions in the motor torque are given to the intensities of the 
magnetic field and the current. The controller likewise also allows 
for starting, changes of speed, working of brake, stoppage and 
reversing. There are various methods of exciting, and varying the 
excitation, of the motor. Separate excitation, current for the purpose 
being taken from some of the accumulators and sent through the 
field winding, gives a constant magnetic fluid and a speed which 
depends upon little else than the difference of potential at the 
motor terminals. The controller regulates this speed by inserting 
variable resistances in the circuit, or better by coupling the 
accumulator batteries in different ways. The magnetic field being 
constant, as soon as the speed of the motor exceeds a certain rate 
it begins to work as a dynamo, acts as a brake, and can serve to 
send to the cells part of the work produced by the running of 
the car. In spite of these indisputable advantages separate excita¬ 
tion is little used owing to the complications which ensue in re¬ 
charging. Unequal discharges of the accumulators affect the 
excitation. This simple difficulty of recharging deserves to be 
taken into consideration, because renewal of the energy is one of 
the greatest inconveniences in the employment of accumulators. 
Series excitation, in which the field coils carry the armature 
current, is the simplest system; it is often employed, and is 
combined with the varied coupling of the batteries, but with it 
the speed of the car varies with the gradient of the road, irregularity 
in speed resulting. Shunt excitation, obtained by sending a small 
portion of the accumulator current through the field coils and the 
major portion through the motor armature, requires a special 
device for starting to avoid burning out the motor, but once the 
motor has commenced work this method has the advantages of 
separate excitation. Sometimes the field winding is in two coils, 


224 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


which the controller couples in series at starting and in parallel 
for running at full speed. Thus two motors can be utilised, each 
driving a wheel and making it possible to dispense with the differ¬ 
ential gear generally requisite to assure independence of the 
driving wheels when turning the car. The methods of coupling 
these two motors, and of their excitation, together with coupling 
of the batteries supplying the current, make possible, says Hospi- 
talier, a great number of combinations to graduate speed, but they 
complicate normal working. The most delicate combinations are, 
moreover, assured by extremely simple movements which merely 
require that the driver should have an idea of the result to be 
obtained. Thus for starting, for reversing, and for stopping the 
controller easily gives all these motions by admitting, reversing, 
or cutting off the current through the armature. This explains 
the great pliancy and extreme ease in handling electric auto¬ 
mobiles. 

The qualities required from electric motors for traction pur¬ 
poses will now be considered. The electric motor, as usually 
constructed, supplies the rotary motion so suitable for automobiles, 
because it suppresses the vibrations inherent in alternating motors 
in a manner which as yet has not been made practicable with 
steam and still less with petrol. As the electric motor has had 
comparatively few applications to cars, it has not yet been possible 
to make all the improvements which will render this motor more 
suitable than it is naturally for easy starting, facile handling, and 
for working with currents of low tension. Endeavours will also be 
made to make it stronger and lighter; thus Patin for his motor 
(Figs. 204 and 205) constructed two supports of aluminium not re¬ 
quired to do much work. Another quality required is slow speed, 
so that the transmission of motion from the armature shaft to the 
driving-axle can be avoided, or, at least, greatly simplified. The 
speed-reducing gears are noisy and expensive, and even when 
made of steel, instead of indurated or green leather or bronze, 
they very soon wear out, especially if not protected by cases; 
also they entail great loss by friction. Moreover, a slow, angular 
speed does not exclude fast tangential speed favourable to the 
development of electro-motive force. Consequently, the diameter 
of the armature should be made as large as the space available 
for it, and the danger which excessive centrifugal power would 


4 


ACCUMULATORS 
cause to the winding will 

O ^ v **WKy 1^/Wil 

brought with impunity to 25 m. (82 ft.)' per second.' These Two 



Fig. 204. Front A iew of Patin Electric Motor. 


>*K 

1 *<J 


ANI) electric motors. 

allow. Tangential sneprl Ear Eoon 



Fig. 205. —End View or Patin Electric Motor. 


conditions, lightness and slow angular speed, must, however, be 
combined with another, namely, sufficient power. It is somewhat 

p 













































226 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


difficult to reconcile all three, because the simplest way to give 
great power to a light motor is to make it rotate rapidly. Be¬ 
sides, it must be remembered that a light motor is not always 
preferable to a heavy one, nor a slow motor to a rapid one. It 
may happen, for example, that a machine weighing less than 
another, but inferior in efficiency, will require an increase in the 
weight of accumulators, much greater than the gain realised by 
its excessively light structure. The consideration of total efficiency 
should really outweigh all others, because the problem is to carry 
a given load with the minimum expenditure of energy. 

The Krieger motor is of the four-pole type, and it is illustrated 



bv Figfs. 206 and 207. It has four excitation coils, two of which are 
wound with thick wire in series and two with thin wire in multiple 
circuit. The drum armature makes from 2,000 to 2,600 revolutions 
per minute. 

The Still electric motor is shown in part by Figs. 208 and 209. Its 
slotted drum armature is secured to the right-hand shaft and runs in 
a ball bearing inside the field magnet extension, the two-pole field 
magnets being rigidly secured to the left-hand shaft and run in ball 
bearings at each end; of course the armature and fields revolve 
in opposite directions. The contact rings at the right end of the field 
magnet revolving part are connected to the windings of the magnets, 
and the rings at the left end to the brushes resting on the commutator 
which has thirty sections ; ordinarily the brushes are of copper, but 
for higher voltages are of carbon. The fields are series wound in 













































































































































































































































































































227 


ACCUMULATORS 


AND ELECTRIC 


MO TORE. 


two layers of different gauge wires, that is, each bobbin has two 
windings. The motor is designed to work at either 80 or 100 volts at 
a current of from 12 to 15 amperes, but it will stand an overload of 
from 85 to 100 per cent, for reasonable periods when hill-climbing. 
The maximum effective speed is 1,000 revolutions per minute, and 
the weight of the complete motor is 795 kg. (175 lb.). 

Ihe Joel motor is ol interest as being the type employed on an 
electric cai that in 1900 ran from London to Brighton without the 
batteries requiring to be recharged. Of the motor, Fig. 210 is a 


Fig. 209 

Fig. 208.— Section of Still Electric Motor. Fig. 209.— End View of Still 



Electric Motor. 


longitudinal section, Fig. 211 is a side elevation, Fig. 212 is a plan of 
the field magnets, and Fig. 213 is a plan of the armature and com¬ 
mutator. The shaft A is held stationary in the outside casing which 
secures the motor to the underframe, and the fixed field magnets L 
carried by the shaft are in two pieces bolted together as shown, and 
carrying between them and inside their pole pieces N, S the 
magnetising coil V. There are twelve poles, the six north poles 
interlacing alternately with the six south poles, and all the pole pieces 
lie in the same radial plane. Mounted about the shaft A, and free to 
revolve upon it, is a sleeve carrying the armature Y, the commutator 
Z, and the driving wheel P. The armature is a laminated iron ring 
bolted to the spider arms y , and slotted transversely around its inner 
face. Each of the slots T carries two insulated square copper wires 
w, the wires being connected about the sides of the ring to form 












































































































































































228 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


overlapping complete windings about the whole armature. There is 
an extra slot for connecting the final ends of the windings in series. 
The general system of this zigzag winding crosses the armature twelve 
times in one complete coil, as shown by Fig. 213, which shows also the 



1 Fig. 212. 

Fig. 210. —Longitudinal Section of Joel Electric Motor. Fig. 211. —Side 
Elevation of Joel Motor. Fig. 212. —Field Magnets of Joel Motor. 


connections to the commutator. In the larger motors more than two 
wires are laid in each of the slots T. This method of construction is 
claimed to reduce weight and to reduce the amount of ineffective 
copper. The Joel voiturette has two of these motors fixed to the 



Fig. 213. —Armature and Commutator of Joel Motor. 

frame, each driving one of the rear wheels of the vehicle by a chain 
Each motor weighs 50 9 kg. (112 lb.) and the two can develop normally 
2 h.-p. at about 700 revolutions per minute; they are said to 
bear an overload of 100 per cent., and their efficiency at an E. M. F. of 
40 volts is given as 70 per cent, at half load, 85 per cent, at normal 
load, and 89 per cent, with a 50 per cent, overload; these are the 
inventor’s figures it is believed. The motors are shunt-wound, and 














































































































ACCUMULATORS AND ELECTRIC MOTORS. 


OOQ 

-j-.«/ 


aie ( 1 ( >sc'( t completely in an aluminium case containing also the 
spur gearing. 

In the construction of car motors the materials must be 
carefully selected, soft steel being used for the magnets, which 
are saturated at full load in order to completely utilise the metal. 
For the same reason motors are often made with several poles, 
say four. The air gap is made as narrow as possible, but not 
less than 3 mm. (012 in.). The section of the armature wire is 
such that the density of the current may be 5 or G amperes per 
mm 2 . (00015 in.); in these circumstances the temperature of the 
winding does not exceed 50 C. However, provision must be made 
for an increase of current of 50 per cent., to say nothing of the 
10 or 12 amperes required at starting, when the temperature 
attains 90° C. 1 hence results the necessity of employing very 
effective insulation, and preferably excitation in series. To avoid 
sparks at the brushes without being obliged to move the latter, 
which is impossible with a motor that has to turn in both 
directions, carbon is used (about 15 mm. 2 , '02 sq. in., in section 
per ampere). Endeavours are also made to reduce the reaction 
of the armature, which causes variation in the position of the 
neutral line. This reduction can be made by giving the magnet 
a great number of ampere turns, which approximates to saturating 
it; this should be done, as was explained, to fully utilise the 
metal. This also leads to an increase in the number of magnet 

o 

poles; the armature reaction decreases as their number is increased. 
The four-pole motor has also the advantage of having a very 
compact form, allowing a very large diameter to be given to the 
armature, and also being very adaptable to a casing. When the 
latter is left open at both ends, it merely protects the coils against 
the effect of shock, which is something; but when entirely shut 
it keeps out moisture, dust, and bits of metal, which, attracted 
by the magnets, might fill the space between them and the arma¬ 
ture. A close casing has only one defect—that of keeping all air 
away from the coils and thus subjecting them to great heating. 
As a remedy for this a few openings are sometimes made at points 
through which the dust and particles of metal are least likely 
to enter. All these advantages have led to the almost exclusive 
employment of the four-pole motor for tramcars, and often also 
for automobiles. As a rule, the four brushes corresponding to the 


230 


THE AUTOMOBILE, 


four poles are not retained ; two of them are omitted, the neces¬ 
sary connections being made on the armature windings. Thus the 
motor is simplified, the chances of imperfect contact decreased, and 
supervision made easier. Sometimes, however, there are four 
brushes, the armature winding comprising two sets ol coils, each 
terminating at a collector and constituting two independent circuits 
capable of being coupled in series or in parallel. 

The means employed to vary the speed of the car consists almost 
exclusively in altering that of the motor. This can be done in 
three ways : a by acting on the voltage of the motor terminals, b by 



modifying the strength of the magnetic field, c by coupling the 
armature coils in various ivays. These three methods can 
each be varied in several ways. The first can be conveniently 
operated by the insertion in the armature circuit of a rheostat, 
the resistance of which can be varied. However, this method has 
the inconvenience of involving loss of energy, this being employed 
to heat the rheostat, which it brings to a high temperature. For 
these two reasons when it is employed its use should be limited 
to starting, and to some other purposes, where it is only required 
for a brief period of time. A better way consists in coupling in 
various ways the accumulator batteries. If, for example, these 
comprise 40 cells, each having an electro-motive force of 2 
volts and arranged in four batteries, parallel coupling of the four 
gives an electro-motive force of 20 volts, sufficient for slow speed ; 
























I 

ACCUMULATORS AND ELECTRIC MOTORS. 231 

the coupling in parallel ot two pairs of batteries arranged in series 
gives 40 volts for average speed; and coupling of the four batteries 
m series gives 80 volts for the highest speed. For intermediary 
lates it is merely requisite to vary the number of excitating 
accumulators, or to place a variable resistance in the excitating 
circuit. I he field excitation can be modified in two ways:—1. By 
insei ting between the terminals of the field circuit a variable 
shunt lesistance; the lower this resistance the greater will be 
the proportion of current passing through it, and the less that 
passing in the field coils. 2. By varying the number of ampere 
turns of excitation. this variation can be obtained by acting 



either on the current or on the number of turns ; in the first 
case the various sections of the field magnets are connected in 
series or in quantity; in the second, the number of the sections 
of the coil inserted in the circuit are varied, but this is not 
done because in this way the magnet is badly utilised at 
high rates. Finally, the armature windings can be coupled in 
the case of four pole motors in series and in parallel. When 
the car is driven by two motors, by coupling them in series 
or in parallel, one can vary from single to double, at equal speed, 
the generated counter electro-motive force. With equal couples the 
speed obtained in the first case will be double that obtained in 
the second. At starting, the two motors in series produce the 
same total couple with half the current that would be used were 
they in parallel. Some makers use a system of gearing which gives 
mechanically, never more than two speeds ; by doubling the number 
of speeds electrically obtained this device gives a most extensive 

























THE AUTOMOBILE. 


032 

range. Of course tlie processes just described are very often com¬ 
bined in the same carriage, according to the taste of the maker. 
D. ])ujon recommends coupling the batteries and armatures, merely 
acting on the field coils by varying the current, and not by altering 
the number of effective turns. As he himself admits, the solution 
is much less simple, and must vary with circumstances. 

Ihe electric motor, as stated in the general account of its 
advantages (see p. 223), can convert to electrical energy part of the 
work produced by the running of the carriage. Thus, when descend¬ 
ing an incline, the motor, no longer receiving current from the 
battery, is driven like a dynamo, and furnishes current, which is 
sent to the accumulators. Unfortunately this action is only pos¬ 
sible with machines turning always in the same direction, whether 
they work as motors or as dynamos—that is, when a machine 
passes from one role to another, the current only changes its 
direction in one of the two parts, armature and field coils. This 
is only so with shunt motors. Now many traction motors have 
excitation by series. r Io employ them in this way the precaution 
stipulated for working the brake must be taken (see below), which 
complicates their construction. All accumulators, also, are not 
suitable, particularly those in which intensity of the charge must 
not exceed a certain rather low limit. 

If, instead of employing the kinetic energy of the carriage to 
turn the motor as a dynamo charging the accumulators, it is 
employed merely to produce a current that is transformed into 
heat by its passage into a suitable resistance the motor acts as a 
brake, the power of which varies in inverse proportion to the 
resistance interposed. When the latter is slight, the motor being 
almost short circuited, an almost instantaneous stoppage is obtained, 
but this should not be done when the carriage is running full 
speed except in imminent danger, because there is a risk of 
burning the aimatuie windings. Ihe electric brake is very suit¬ 
able for a series motor; the only precaution that need be taken 
when putting on the brake is changing the direction of the 
armature or magnet current so that it may become a generator, 
turning in the same direction as it did when a motor. It is less 
suitable for a shunt motor. 

The controller is an apparatus which governs the various 
movements just enumerated j it is called also the speed regulator. It 


ACCUMULATORS AND ELECTRIC MOTORS. 


233 


acts by establishing various couplings between the different parts of 
the electric mechanism such as accumulator terminals, motor brushes, 
armature and field magnet windings, rheostats, etc. With this object 
each of the parts is connected by conductors to a commutator 
terminal, and the terminals themselves communicate with brushes 
rubbing against contacts which assure the required couplings. The 
illustrations, Figs. 214 and 215 (pp. 230 and 231), represent diagram- 
matically a convenient method of constructing this device; the 
commutator terminals A are arranged in a line parallel to a cylinder 
B, upon which the contacts C are placed ; the brushes D, fixed on the 
ends of metal springs E, communicate with the terminals and are 
tangential with the cylinder. Each set of contacts is also similarly 
arranged, the contacts being connected in a suitable manner by 
metal conductors buried in the insulating cylinder. By aid of a 
handle the cylinder can be turned around its centre F so as to bring 
under the brushes the set of contacts corresponding to the move¬ 
ment to be made. In Fig. 215 (p. 231) A denotes accumulators, B 
armature, C winding, I) rheostat, Z backward motion, Y second 
brake, X first brake, W open circuit and stopping, V starting and 
low speed, U high speed 

With regard to charging the accumulators, it the car is ol the 
hackney carriage type the replacing of exhausted batteries by 
fully charged batteries, as done particularly by the Compagnie 
Fran^ais des Voitures Electromobiles, appears to be the best 
system. This has the great advantage of not storing the carriages 
during the lengthy operation ol charging. It would be in vain 
to increase the number of charging stations in a town, with the 
idea of making practical a system of rapid charging, without re¬ 
moving the accumulators because accumulators that would be suit¬ 
able have only very slight specific capacity, say 2 to 3 ampere 
hours per kg. (2 2 lb.). Hackney carriages can carry fixed accumu¬ 
lators and have them charged at the depots, but this involves 
keeping them lor a long time at a standstill and net essitates a 
number of charging depots. On the other hand, this system is 
available for private owners, whose houses are connected with the 
town electric service; in such cases recharging can proceed during 
the night. In any case the accumulators will be assembled in 
series for charging. An alternating current must be com ei ted to 
a continuous current, and this will cause complication. 


234 


CHAPTER IX. 

STEAM, PETROL, AND ELECTRIC MOTORS COMPARED. 

Now that it has been shown how the three agents, steam, petrol, 
and electricity are applied in the propulsion of automobiles, it will 
be easy to point out their relative advantages. 

Of steam motors, only the alternating type hitherto has been 
employed extensively, and this has not that continuity of action 
possessed by the rotary motor which offers itself as the type of 
road car motor; none the less, the alternating motor is very suitable 
for the purpose, and no other proof of this than the locomotive is 
needed. Rectilinear and alternating though it is, the motion is very 
simply transformed by aid of a connecting rod and a crank into 
a circular continuous motion and the steam exerts its pressure on 
the piston without jarring, quite different from the petrol motor- 
The steam road ‘ motor, as it is and must remain, is extremely 
simple and composed of durable parts; consequently its working 
is very reliable, and if deranged can easily be repaired. Considered 
apart from the boiler, it is for equal speed and power lighter than 
the petrol motor, this being accounted for by the fact that in a 
four-cycle petrol motor there is only one driving stroke in four, 
whereas in the double-action steam motor every stroke drives’ 
Moreover, the volume of air requisite to completely burn the 
carburetted mixture is, on account of the burnt rases remaining- 
from the previous explosion, much greater than indicated by 
theory, and so the explosion chamber must be larger than that 
calculated theoretically. The relative lightness of the steam motor 
even increases with the power of the motor; but the boiler is 
essential, and its weight has to be considered, it then appearing 
that the petrol motor gives a greater efficiency than the steam 
motor and boiler, weight for weight. However, the chief advantage 
of the steam motor is its elasticity. The boiler can at a given 
moment greatly increase production; a tubular boiler does so by 


STEAM, PETROL, AND ELECTRIC MOTORS COMPARED. 235 


the reserve of heat constituted by the volume of hot water under 
pressure; an instantaneous vaporisation boiler, such as the Serpollet 
type with thick tubes, does so by the reserve of heat constituted 
by the bulk ol the metal tubes; a Serpollet boiler with water 
heated by petroleum does so by its very great rapidity of vaporisa¬ 
tion. In all the cases the additional power which the boiler 
gives greatly facilitates travelling over broken ground. The work¬ 
ing ol the motor itself is very elastic owing to the ease in varying 
admission of steam. For starting, after the first piston strokes a 
maximum power can be obtained by taking the notch for slightest 
expansion, and if the motor is compound and furnished with a 
valve which gives direct communication between the boiler and 
the large cylinder by making the latter work at full pressure. When 
during a journey speed or power has to be varied it suffices to 
modify expansion. This enables great simplification of the 
mechanism for transmitting the movement of the motor to the 
car wheels. As a rule two mechanical changes of speed are 
considered sufficient, whereas with petrol motors there are three 
or four. Backward motion is obtained by simply altering the 
direction in which the steam acts; the car is stopped by shutting 
the governor and thus stopping the motor, so that during the 
period of stoppage there is no useless consumption of energy. All 
these movements, so favourable to good working of the car, are 
•obtained in the easiest way imaginable, by the aid of a valve and 
reversing lever. Moreover, as the expenditure of steam, and conse¬ 
quently fuel, is at each instant regulated by the power required 
for propulsion of the vehicle, economic employment of the work 
furnished by the motor is thus assured. To form an idea of the 
economy of a steam motor, Marcel Deprez says that daily experi¬ 
ence demonstrates that a locomotive boiler consumes 1 kg. (2'2 lb.) 
of coal per 8 kg. (17'6 lb.) of steam. The trials made by the 
Eastern Railway Company of France demonstrated that the horse¬ 
power hour can be obtained at the tyres ol the driving Avheels 
after allowing for the loss of force by friction of the mechanism 
with a consumption of 11 kg. (242 lb.) of steam, lhis is equivalent, 
the French horse-power hour representing 270,000 kgm. (1,953,000 
ft.-lb.), to a production of about 25,000 kgm. (180,800 ft.-lb.) per kg. 
(2’2 lb.) of steam. Allowing with Deprez that the boiler of an 
automobile gives 7 kg. (15'4 lb.) of steam per kg. (22 lb.) of coal, 


236 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


and that the efficiency of the motor is about one-third less than 
that of the locomotive, the kg. (2*2 lb.) of steam would then only 
give 16,500 kgm. (119,400 ft.-lb.). Deprez considers that by super¬ 
heating the steam suitably these figures could be exceeded. Calcu¬ 
lating from these figures, and reckoning a traction co-efficient of 
0*03 on level ground, it may be ascertained what quantity of coal 
would run a one-ton car 100 km. (62 miles) with a difference of 
altitude between the starting and arrival points of 500 m. (547 
yards). The work to be developed would amount to 3,500,000 kgm. 
(25,316,000 ftj-lb.). The amount of steam necessary to give this 
work would be 212 kg. (406'4 lb.), and the amount of coal to 
produce this steam 30 kg. (66 lb.), say 300 gr. (0 00 lb.) of coal 

per kilometre tonne, that is IT lb. of coal per mile-ton. With coal 

bought retail at the rate ol £1 12.s. per ton this would cost 

0114 cl. per km. (0*62 mile). Allowing that an automobile gives 
the same economic results as a locomotive, say 8 kg. (17*6 lb.) 
of steam per kg. (2*2 lb.) of fuel, and 25,000 kgm. (181,000 
ft.-lb.) at the wheel tyres per kg. (2-2 lb.) of steam, the con¬ 

sumption falls to 175 g. of coal per kilometre-tonne (9*4 oz. per 
mile-ton), reckoned at £1 the ton, the cost falls to 0*41(7. per 
kilometre-tonne (0*67c7. per mile-ton), which is certainly little. 

The great objection to the steam motor is the necessity of a 
boiler, which, with the supply of water and fuel, is a considerable 
weight. It is taken that the boiler, like that of a locomotive, can 
give 90 kg. (198 lb.) of steam, and weighs 120 kg. (2641b.) per m. 2 
(10*76 sq.ft.) of heating surface, and that the automobile must run 
30 km. (18*6 miles) per hour when the gradients do not exceed 3 
per cent. To maintain this speed with this maximum declivity,, 

the motor must furnish per second energy equal to 500 kgm. 

(3,600 ft.-lb.), and the hourly consumption will be about 110 kg. 
(242 lb.) of steam. For this the heating surface of the boiler should 
be 1*25 m. 2 (13*5 sq. ft.), and the weight 1*25 x 120 = 158 kg. 
(347*6 lb.). As regards supplies, if the automobile has to run 100 km. 
(62 miles) without replenishing, it must carry 212 kg. (466*4 lb.) 
of water, and 30 kg. (66 lb.) of coke ; total, 242 kg. (532*4 lb.). Thus 

the boiler and supplies weigh about 400 kg. (8001b.), say 40 per 

cent, of that of the car; this is an enormous proportion. Reckon¬ 
ing the weight of a two-cylinder motor as 50 kg. (110 lb.), including 
valve gear, and the weight of two persons, with their light baggage* 


STEAM, PETROL , 


AND ELECTRIC MOTORS COMPARED. 


237 


as 200 kg. (4401b.), there remains a little more than 350 kg. (7701b.) 
lor the weight ol the vehicle alone. With the more favourable 
hypothesis admitted in the second place, the weight of the supplies 
would be reduced to 140 + 17*5, about 160 kg. (352 lb.). If the 
boiler gave an efficiency equal to that of torpedo-boat boilers, which, 
with equal heating surface, do not weigh more than 0.6 of the 
weight of locomotive boilers, it would weigh only 0*6 x 150 = 
90 kg. (198 lb.). Thus boiler and supplies, being scarcely 250 kgs. 
(550 lb.), will only represent one quarter of the weight of the car. 
If a simple means is found of adding a condensing apparatus the 
supply of water will be much decreased, as already is the case 
with several cars, especially the Serpollet cars. Besides, more 
frequent supplies than supposed may be allowed, water being 
taken in every 50 km. (31 miles) instead of 100 km. (62 miles). 
Other inconveniences of the boiler are: (1) There is difficulty in 
placing it so that it can be easily tended, and yet not inconvenience 
the passengers. (2) It requires the attendance of a competent 
stoker. (3) It throws out sparks, smoke, and steam, which 
may frighten horses and inconvenience pedestrians. The heavy 
vehicle trials at Versailles in 1897 demonstrated that these incon¬ 
veniences could be almost suppressed by furnishing the funnel 
with a grating to prevent the escape of sparks and by super¬ 
heating the exhaust steam, and mixing it with the hot gases 
of combustion so as to render it invisible. (4) It requires 
some time (half an hour) to get up steam. All these incon¬ 
veniences are much lessened in large automobiles, which are 
sometimes traction engines employed for hauling passengers and 
goods. 

For light touring automobiles propelled by steam change of fuel 
is necessary. Serpollet employs petroleum, with which storage of 
considerable energy becomes easier (petroleum gives more than 10,000 
calories per kg. (1,146 British heat units per lb.), instead of 8,000 
calories (916 British heat units) like coke, and can be carried in a 
vessel, whose shape can be made to accommodate available space); 
with petroleum the ordinary advantages of steam exist, a stoker is 
not needed, the management of the lire is reduced to working a tap, 
lighting up is instantaneous, and getting up steam pressure rapid. 
Economy will be increased when heavy crude oils replace the 
more expensive petroleum. The question is whether for long 


238 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


distance touring—for which, hitherto, petrol motors seem to 
have been adopted exclusively—this system of heating will become 
popular. 

The petrol motor has the advantage over steam of giving a 
greater efficiency, and a greater amount of energy is stored volume 
for volume and weight for weight than with steam. To run a one- 
ton automobile for a distance of 100 kg. (02 miles) 4'66 kg. (10 25 
lb.) of petrol spirit is required, this having a volume of 6‘66 1. (1172 
pt.), reckoning the density of the petrol at 07. One kg. (22 lb.) of 
petrol spirit corresponds to at least 10,000 calories, or 4,250,000 kgm. 
(30,740,850 ft.-lb.), which, according to Deprez, represents about 
750,000 kgm. (5,425,000 ft.-lb.) available at the wheel tyres. But 
taking 250,000 kgm. (1,808,300 ft.-lb.) to be the actual work at the 
tyres per kg. of petrol spirit, the weight of spirit required for the 
100 km. will be 1398 kg. (30 75 lb.), representing at 0 7 density 
nearly 20 1. (35 pt.). Even reckoning the weight of the petrol 
reservoir and carburetter, the weight is small in comparison with 
that required by steam. The total weight of a li.p. petrol 
motor with all accessories and supplies may not exceed 200 kg. 
(440 lb.), whilst a steam motor of equal power would weigh 450 kg. 
(990 lb.). The enormous difference,' even though reduced a little 
to allow for the weight of the water which cools the motor, 
remains free for strengthening the carriage work. Another 
advantage of petrol motors is the comparative ease with which 
they are started. 

The disadvantages of petrol motors, however, are numerous. The 
chief is the absence of elasticity or adaptability of working. As. 
Soreau remarks, the amount of carburetted air is regulated by 
the volume of the cylinder, but its richness cannot vary greatly 
because the explosion does not occur when the proportions corre¬ 
sponding with complete combustion are exceeded or not attained. 
The quantity and the richness of the explosive mixture are- 
almost invariable, and it follows that the power cannot be greatly 
increased. 

Moreover, the motor does not give a profitable efficiency, and 
the power for which it was constructed, unless it revolves at the 
normal rate of speed. However little it may vary from this, the 
fuel is wasted partly, and the motor power decreased. For varying 
the speed and work of the car, between the motor shaft and tho 


S'TEAM, PETROL, AND ELECTRIC MOTORS COMPARED. 239 

driving wheels are placed gear differential pulleys, with belts, which 
absorb some of the useful power, and complicate the mechanism. 
In practice it even happens frequently that the dimensions of these 
parts are calculated badly. For example, when a car climbs a hill 
at slow speed; its maximum power being required, the motor must 
not cease to turn at its regular speed. Now, very often the trans¬ 
mission gear is so arranged that the motor cannot preserve its 
regular speed; this is a real hut only too frequent defect of con¬ 
struction. Motive power being due to the explosion of the car- 
buretted mixture, the working is not so smooth as that of a steam 
motor; the jolts are destructive to the material, and little conducive 
to uniform motion. Moreover, a heavy fly-wheel is necessary with 
the petrol motor, and some constructors have a tendency to lighten 
it; then it is unable to store all the energy which is lost in de¬ 
structive effects, and the motor is thus found unable to give the 
work for which it was calculated. The enormous speed at which 
a petrol motor is run tends to make the quickly-running car itself 
serve as a fly-wheel, and vibrations are much decreased. At low 
speeds, however, and still more so during stoppages of the car, the 
vibrations are a great inconvenience. If the motor were stopped 
always when the car was stopped it would be necessary, when 
re-starting the motor, to revolve the motor shaft by turning the 
winch, and this would necessitate the driver leaving his seat. 
Running of the motor during stoppages of the car involves, of 
course, sheer loss of petrol spirit. A great inconvenience of the 
petrol motor is the necessity of cooling the cylinder. Air-cooling 
answers only when the motive power is not greater than 2 or 
3 h.p. (some few constructors consider it possible beyond this); 
above this power water-cooling must be employed, and for this 
purpose a considerable and frequently-renewed quantity of water 
is required. 

Another defect is that the driving strain being always produced 
on the same side of the piston the motor cannot adapt itself to a 
change of direction; consequently, in order to make a backward 
movement, use must be made of gearing or pulleys with a crossed 
belt. These are not found on some vehicles, but in France the 
Regulations of March 10, 1899, impose them upon all automobiles 
which empty exceed 250 kg. (550 lb.) in weight. Carburetting, in 
itself fickle, varies particularly with the humidity and temperature 


240 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


of the outer air, and this often is a source ot trouble, especially 
to the inexperienced. The exhaust gases exhale an odour which, 
though not noticeable to the passengers, is very unpleasant to 
people in the wake of the car. Petrol spirit is dangerous to 
handle, especially when at night a light must be used, and the 
tanks and carburetters must be emptied. The cost price of traction 
is greater than with coke; thus with petrol spirit the 100 km. 
run with a one ton car would cost (petrol spirit at 4*3 cl. per 1., 
that is, 2*4 d, per pt.), either 28. 4J<7., or 7s. 14<7., either 0*285(7. or 
0*855<7. per kilometre tonne, that is, either 0 47 5d. or 1*42 d. per 
mile-ton, according to which hypothesis is adopted (see p. 238). 
With coke the cost of a kilometre ton is from 0114 d. to 00418(7., 
and of a mile-ton from 019(7. to 0069(7. The above inconve¬ 
niences are increased very much as the size of the motor increases, 
and so a limit is placed upon the power of the petrol motor. 
This seems likely to bar its use for the transport of any load 
weighing more than 1,500 kg. (3,300 lb., a little less than 14 tons). 
This margin, however, allows a town or suburban delivery by 
automobile instead of by traction engine. The absence of a boiler 
and the lightness of the motor supplies would deprive the traction 
engine of weight which is essential to it to obtain sufficient 
adhesion. On the other hand, the advantages of carrying considerable 
energy, of easily obtaining supplies on the road, and that one 
person can both drive and attend to the car, make the petrol 
automobile the indispensable agent for long-distance touring- 
Recommendations of petroleum in the place of petrol spirit are its 
lower inflammability, this decreasing dangers of conflagration, and 
its cheaper cost. Petrol spirit gives off inflammable vapours at 5° C., 
often at 0° C., whilst petroleum can be heated to 35° C. without 
igniting, even when a lighted match is held near. As regards 
economy, allowing with Witz that 0 57 1. (1 pt.) of petrol spirit 
and 0 54 1. (0*95 pt.) of petroleum respectively give the effective 
horse-power hour, and reckoning the former at 4*27(7. per 1. 
(2*43<7. per pt.), and the latter at 2*28<7. per 1. (1*3(7. per pt.), 
it follows that the horse-power hour with petrol spirit costs 
2*47(7. and with petroleum 1*235(7., exactly half. The diffi¬ 
culties of carburetting petroleum are not insurmountable, and 
already some automobiles, Koch’s for example, are driven with 
petroleum. 


STEAM, PETROL, AND ELECTRIC MOTORS COMPARED. 241 

^ ith regard to the electric automobile, the continuity of rotary 
motion, its elasticity, and what is practically automatic regulation, 
give superiority to the electric motor. It is managed easily, is docile, 
has a noiseless motion, and the motor itself is mounted in a very 
simple manner. Over petrol cars it has the advantages of easier 
starting, greater cleanliness, and lower cost of upkeep. There 
is but little vibration Avith the electric automobile, no bad odour, 
and no consumption of energy whilst the car is stopped. It is 
not claimed that electric cars will not burn, because it is possible 
for the celluloid of the accumulator cases to be ignited by a short 
circuit; but all serious risk of fire can be avoided by replacing 
celluloid with ebonite, though this adds slightly to the weight. 

Ihe inconveniences of electricity as automobile motive power 
are increase of dead weight carried, maintenance and renewal 
of accumulators of uncertain duration, difficulty of obtaining 
supplies for the accumulators, and the loss of time in charg¬ 
ing. These inconveniences are lessened greatly in cars for town 
work. 

The part assigned to each of the three principal agents is then, 
in brief, steam for heavy loads, petrol for long-distance touring, and 
electricity for town cars. This has the reservation, however, that 
steam may yet rival petrol in the latter’s domain. Moreover, these 
conclusions must not be taken too literally, and in each case the 
general remarks hitherto made must be brought to bear, especially 
as regards facilities for obtaining ne\v - supplies of energy. With 
regard to this last point, petroleum and petrol spirit generally can 
be obtained most readily, whilst electricity is obtained Avith the 
greatest difficulty, unless the house has a suitable installation. As 
regards rapidity of starting, the petrol motor is always ready to start, 
but the electric motor, if the accumulators are charged, is more 
rapidly set in motion. 

As regards road profile, steam appears to be most suitable for 
rough ground, but electricity gives very good Avork in mountains, 
Avhere it can utilise for its oAvn production unemployed Avater- 
falls, and can even regenerate on the road. Petrol spirit seems 
more suitable than steam or electricity for express speeds; but in 
mountains the two latter can claim superiority. Economy depends 
much upon the conditions of traffic and on the tonnage, and ap¬ 
parently can be claimed b}^ steam, but special circumstances, such 

Q 


242 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


as the difficulty of obtaining coke, may make the employment of 
petrol cheaper. Thus, at the heavy vehicle competitions at Versailles 
in 1897 and 1898, the petrol motor gave economic results com¬ 
parable with those of steam, whereas the Say Refining Works 
considered it advantageous to employ an electric 10-ton dray for 
conveying some of its produce. 


243 


CHAPTER X 

DETERMINING MOTOR POWER REQUIRED BY AN AUTOMOBILE. 

In calculating the power necessary to make an automobile run at 
a required speed, first must be estimated the useful effort which 

the motor has to develop at the tyres of the driving wheels. This 

efiort during a journey will have to overcome resistance due to 
(1) rolling of the car along an apparently level road; (2) friction 
of the journals in the axle boxes; (3) road gradient, whose effect 
is added to or deducted from that of running on a level, according 
as the car ascends or descends; (4) curves, whose influence will 
be inversely proportionate to their radii; (5) air resistance. 

The resistance due to the rolling of the car on a level road 

depends upon the nature of the ground over which the car runs 

and upon the tyres. It also depends upon the extent of the tyre 
and road surfaces in contact, and the impression they make on 
each other resulting from the width and elasticity of the tyres 
Evidently a wheel of large diameter should overcome an obstacle 
more easily than a smaller one, because to the latter an obstacle 
constitutes actual ascent, whilst the big wheel, commanding it by 
all its height, rolls over it. This fact has been demonstrated by 
the experiments made first by R. L. Edgeworth in 1797 and then by 
Coulomb, 1736-1806 ; these experiments have been repeated by A. 
Morin, who concluded, perhaps not very accurately, that the resistance 
to the rolling of a wooden cylinder on a horizontal plane, whilst it 
generally is proportional to the pressure (here to the weight of the 
wheel and load it supports), always is in inverse proportion to the. 
radius. The effect of the speed of the car, moreover, is not neglectable. 
In fact, it will be understood that the fraction of this speed 
absorbed by the jolts to which the wheels are subjected depends 
upon its absolute value. Needless to remark also, a shock given 
causes the loss of a greater amount of kinetic energy with a car 
without springs than with a car which has springs in which the 
entire mass is uninfluenced by the shock and whose springs 

Q2 


244 


THE AUTOMOBILE . 


accumulate part of the kinetic energy brought into play and 
subsequently restore it to the vehicle. Therefore the considerations 
ar6 :—(1) The condition of the road; (2) width and kind of tyres; 
(3) diameter of the wheels; (4) speed of the car; (5) suspension 
of the body. As regards friction of the journals in the axle boxes, 
it may be influenced by the diameter of the journals and by the 
co-efficient of friction itself depending on the nature of the metals 
in contact and the conditions of lubrication. Morin studied these 
various influences, although of course at that time iron tyres were 
employed exclusively, and he found that the traction strain Rl, 
applied at the wheel tyres, could be expressed in function of these 
elements by the following formula:— 


ri -(a-mo (£+£!!)+ a (£+]£) 


in which A represents a co-efficient depending upon the state of 
the road and the nature of the vehicle, f the co-efficient of friction 
of the journals in their boxes, the value for which varies from 
0030 to 04)54 according to the nature of the metals in contact 
(cast-iron, iron, bronze) and the method of lubrication—when this 
is well assured 0040 may be taken., as the average value; p, the 
diameter of the four journals; P l , P 11 , loads on the fore and rear 
axles, p 1 p u the respective weights of front and back wheels, and r 1 r 11 
the spokes of the wheels. This formula clearly explains the influence 
of the wheel diameters, the radius of the journals and their friction in 
the boxes. The kind of road, the width of tyres, the speed of car, the 
spring suspension of the body, are implicitly included in A, the 
value of which varies with them. These variations are given in 

o 

tables, by aid of which Morin summarised his experiments, and 
which are reproduced in Voitures Automobiles by Messrs. Milandre 
and Bouquet. Opposite to the figures given is always found the 
kind and condition of the road to which they refer. The in¬ 
fluence of the width of the tyres, which were always of iron, is 
illustrated by the three tables given on pp. 67 and 68 of the work 
above mentioned. Examination of the first demonstrates that 
with a compressible road, sand, or soft earth, the value of A 
(owing to the driving strain to be developed) decreases with the 
increase in width of the tyre. The last two demonstrate that, on 
the contrary, with an incompressible road the value of A increases 
with the width of the tyre. Therefore there is an advantage, in 


DETERMINING MOTOR POWER REQUIRED. 


245 


the first case, in making wide tyres, and, in the second, narrow 
tyres. W ith the view of keeping roads in good condition Morin 
recommends 15 cm. (5'9 in.) as tyre width for soft and com¬ 
pressible roads, and 12 cm. (4*74 in.) for solid macadam and paved 
roads; these widths are too great for light automobiles, which, 
moreover, have solid indiarubber or pneumatic tyres, and so do 
not cause the road any injury. The influence of speed is given in 
a table on p. / 0 of the above work, which very clearly demon¬ 
strates the increase in the value of A with that of the speed, and 
Avhetlier the road is paved or covered with loose stones, in good 
or bad condition, but the proportional increase is marked according 
as the condition of the road deteriorates, which can easily be explained 
by considering that the retarding effect of the jolts increases 
with the frequency and the size of the obstacles and holes. 

A table (Voituves Automobiles , p. 69) gives the values of 8 numerical 
co-efficient variable with the state of the road which enters into the 
expression 8 (V—V 1 ) by which may be represented the increased value 
of A when the speed passes from Y to VI It demonstrates that 
this value of 8, and consequently of A, is always much less for a 
suspended car than for one without springs. By one of these 
tables can be determined in each case the value of A which 
should be taken. Really it will not always be found given, in 
which case it must be interpolated, but most frequently it is an 
extrapolation which will have to be made, because since the 
renaissance of automobilism, which only dates back a few years, 
the conditions for traction of vehicles have far exceeded the 
narrow limits to which they were restricted at the time Morin 
made his experiments; thus the table of speeds stops at 126 km. 
(7’82 miles) per hour, whereas at the present day 80 km. (18*6 
miles) per hour is a usual speed. It is desirable that new experi¬ 
ments should be made systematically to meet every case in actual 
practice. By inserting the value thus determined in the formula, 
concurrently with those of the other elements, the resistance can 
be found, due to rolling of the wheels and friction of the journals. 
By dividing this resistance expressed in kgm. by the total pressure 
or load (F + P") of the vehicle is obtained the co-efficient of 
traction (corresponding to the rolling and friction of the journals), 
which is the convenient element to consider. 

Often enough it will be given directly by the table (Voit tires 


246 


TEE AUTOMOBILE. 


Automobiles , p. 65) in which Morin consigned his values for the most 
usual applications of his experiments. Much more recent experi¬ 
ments made by the Compagnie Generale des Voitures and the 
Compagnie Generale des Omnibus of Paris gave for the co-efficient of 
traction at a speed of 8 km. (4'97 miles) 0-025 on fairly regular paving 
and 0020 on good macadam. These figures are very similar to those 
of Morin for the conditions supposed: that of 0 025 is not far from 
the average value of this co-efficient. As before remarked, Morin’s 
calculations were made when tyres were always of iron, but this 
material is the exception at least for light cars, which always 
have solid indiarubber or pneumatic tyres. 

Experiments made by Andre Miclielin, and reported in Le Genie 
Civil , Vol. XXIX., No. 16, p. 251, were with an excursion brake, well 
suspended, weighing 570 kg. (1,254 lb.) empty, and having rear 
wheels 112 m. (3 ft. 8 in.) in diameter, and fore wheels 92 cm. 
(3 ft,), and they gave as co-efficient of traction— 






Tyres. 

Walking. 

Trotting. 

Quick Trot. 

Iron 

0-0242 

0-0300 

0 0368 

Pneumatic. 

0-0228 

0-0239 

0-0339 


The last experiment, made in 1897 with a coupe belonging to 
the Compagnie Generale, hauled, by aid of the dynamometric car of 
the same company, by a de Dion-Bouton steam traction engine, 
demonstrated that solid indiarubber and pneumatic tyres are 
always better than iron (except, perhaps, solid indiarubber on a 
muddy pavement at great speed). For pneumatic tyres the gain 
is never less than 10 per cent, of the traction strain, and may 
attain as much as 30 per cent, and 35 per cent, on bad ground. 
The conclusion is, that solid indiarubber tyres, or preferably 
pneumatic tyres, should be employed to reduce the traction strain; 
if, in spite of this, the strain is calculated with Morin’s figures as 
a basis, assuredly there will be ample margin. 

With regard to the resistance due to gradient, if the angle 
made by the road surface with the horizontal is designated by a, 
the loads P' P" on each axle may be divided into two components 
each, two perpendicular to the ground, equal to P' cos a, P" cos a, 
and the others parallel to the road, equal to P' sin a, P" sin a. 











DETERMINING MOTOR POWER REQUIRED. 


247 


The first are those produced on the ground by pressure of the 
vehicle; as a good rule they should, in the case of a gradient, be 
substituted for the loads P' and P" in the formula; but as a is 
never very great these components have values very near those 
of P' and P", and the latter are retained; the only risk, more¬ 
over, is to calculate in excess the motor strain. As for the others, 
the sum of which is (P' + P") sin a — P sin a (P being the 
weight of the car), they are directed in the same way as the motor 
strain, and are added to it if the car ascends and deduced if it 
descends. Practically, gradients a are calculated in mm. per m. 


(one in one thousand), and this number 


N 

1,000 


of mm. represents 


exactly the sinus of the angle of inclination. 



then can be 


taken as the measure of the resistance due to the gradient. Com¬ 
pared with the tonne this resistance is represented by as many 
kg. as there are mm. in the gradients; in other words, the share 


in the co-efficient of traction relative to the gradient 


W 

P 


N 

~ 1,000 


equals the number of mm. this gradient measures. 

Resistance due to curves is somewhat intense in locomotives 
whose wheels, keyed in twos on the same axle and turning at the 
same speed, run together when the track is straight, but cannot 
continue to do so when the line is curved; it results that the inner 
wheels skid, the wear of the tyre and the rail causing a loss of 
energy. With automobiles furnished with differential gear, which 
gives the driving wheels independence, the wheel on the inside of 
the curve rotates more slowly than the other when the road ceases 
to be straight; thus there is no appreciable resistance due to 
curves. 

Resistance caused by the air cannot be neglected, and for proof 
of this see a table on p. 74 of Voitures Automobiles epitomising 
Michelin’s experiments in 1897 ; on good hard, dry, and dusty macadam 
with iron tyres, the co-efficients of traction are respectively equal to 
0-0253 and 0-0272 at a speed of 117 km. (7*3 miles) per hour, 
and 0-0270 and 0*0344 at a speed of 19*7 km. (12-24 miles), according 
as the wind is blowing with or against the car. Thibault found 
that the resistance of the air against the base of a vertical prism 
with a square section, the edges being placed in the direction of 





THE AUTOMOBILE. 


the motion, compared with the unit of horizontal road travelled 
by the prism, has for value R 8 = 0 0625 e S V' 2 ; V being the speed 
of the prism in metres per second; S, the surface of the prism in 
m. 2 ; e, a co-efficient depending upon the proportion of the length 


l of the prism to side a at its base, and equal to 1*10 for 


— = 3 ; 117 for - = 1; 143 for - l. As noted by Milandre and 
a a a J 


Bouquet, for most automobiles it may be taken that e = 110. 
Thibault also found that for the second of two square and equal 
surfaces travelling one behind the other, so that the first 
covered the second, resistance of the air is greatly decreased, 


being only seven-tenths of that experienced by the first (determined 


by preceding formula) when the interval between the two surfaces 
is equal to the side of the squares. By these figures the resistance 
experienced by .a hauled car can be approximately estimated. 


Bourlet estimates that the resistance of air is sufficiently expressed 


by the simpler formula B 3 = 0 005 S V 2 , in which V represents the 
speed in km. per hour. 

As is well known, the driving strain needed at starting a car 
is greater than that required along the road. During stoppage of 
the car the lubricant employed for the axles congeals more or less, 
and the journals adhere to their boxes. Moreover, the ground 
sinks under the wheels, so that the latter have an actual gradient 
to ascend at starting—a gradient which is so much the steeper 
as the ground is more compressible and the weight of the car 
greater. The increase of resistance resulting is almost nil on 
asphalte; and on wood pavements and on macadam in perfect 
condition and very dry it is little felt. On macadam and pave¬ 
ments in fairly good condition the resistance to starting a is estimated 
at one-fifth more than that during the journey b; consequently, to 
meet (a) it is customary to increase ( b ) by so much in calculating 
the required motor power. On badly kept roads the starting strain 
may be considerably more. The motor, also, must at starting 
overcome the resistance opposed to the working of its various parts, 
the inertia of all the mass, but there is no special resistance to 
be calculated. The motor will merely require more or less time 
to bring the car to its regular rate of speed. The formula of the 
resistance in function of the elements just dealt with is then: 



looo — 


P N + 


0-005 S V 2 J 



DETERMINING MOTOR POWER REQUIRED. 


249 


De Mauni’s recent experiments and their influence on the 
calculation of the motor power may be mentioned. This investigator 
has cast a doubt on the principles upon which Morin based this 
formula. Without entering into details, the differences may be 
specified for two very distinct types of roads corresponding to the 
most usual conditions of travelling in France. On a macadam 
paved road, and but slightly compressible, the resistance is: 


According to 
Morin 

According to 
de Mauni 


Proportional 

to 

Pressure. 


V. 


Inversely Proportional' 
to Radius of Wheels. 
Inversely Proportional 
to square root of 
Wheel Radius. ' 


Little 
Influenced 
( by 
Speed. 


f Almost Independent 
| of Width of Tyres. 

Independent of 
Width of Tyres. 


In this case, then, the only real difference is that regarding 
the effect of the diameter of the wheels. According to de Mauni’s 
results the value of the resistance found by Morin’s formula is 
less than the real value. On paved roads the resistance is: 


According 
to Morin 


Proportional 

Pressure. 


t o 


According j More than Propor-' 
to de Mauni tional to Pressure. 




"Inversely Pro portional'j 
to Wheel Radius. 

More than Inversely 
Proportional to Wheel 
- Radius. 


Propor¬ 

tional 

to 

Speed. 


Proportional to Width 
of Tyres. 

Inversely Proportional 
to Width of Tyres. 


Leaving aside the influence of width of tyres to which the experi¬ 
menters ascribe opposite effects, the value of the resistance calculated 
by the Morin formula must for two reasons be less than its real 
value. Consequently employment of the Morin formula will only 
give approximative results.' The results obtained by J. M. Dupuit in 
1837 are more like those of de Mauni than those of Morin, and it is a 
question whether it is better, in estimating the resistance to rolling, to 
employ the Dupuit formula instead of that of Morin. The Dupuit 
formula is: 

For macadamised roads T = —f. P 4- 0T2 (P — p) 

CD D 


0*0009 7 

For paved roads (walking) T = 0 0118 + ^ qq.£ P -f 0T2 (P —p) Ty 

CD 

in which D, cl, equals diameters of wheels and journals; P, total 
pressure exerted by the car on the road; p, weight of the wheels; 
L, width of wheel tyres. However, these formula were made for 
two-wheel cars, the only ones with which experiments were suffi¬ 
ciently numerous and varied. In the case of the two four-wheeled 
cars with which Dupuit made brief experiments—a diligence be¬ 
longing to the Laffitte and Caillard Co. and a char-a-banc with 














250 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


rear wheels 15 m. (4 ft. 11 in.) in diameter and front wheels 
8(j cm. (2 ft. 9'86 in.)—he demonstrated that the rear wheels 
experience much less resistance owing to the wheels in front; this 
is explained naturally by the fact that the wheels entering the 
track made by those in front (the two axles were of the same 
length) have some of the work done for them. However, Dupuit 
considers this to be the only consequence worth recording in the 
few experiments with four-wheelers. As all automobiles have two 
axles, the application of the Dupuit formula to them is not indi¬ 
cated. The values assigned by this engineer to the co-efficient of 

traction differ very considerably from those accepted on the strength 
of the experiments made much more recently with a perfected 
dynamometric car—that is to say, with more accurate measuring 
instruments than the dial steel yard of Dupuit and under condi¬ 
tions much nearer to those of ordinary traffic as regards hauling, etc. 
In fact, 0025 was taken for this co-efficient on fairly regular 
pavement and 0’02 on good macadam, whereas Dupuit’s average is 
0 020 for paved roads and 0 03 on macadam ; not only do their 

absolute values differ, but they are reversed in relative greatness. 

It is not understood, either, how the hauling co-efficient is greater 
for a carriage than for a diligence 'and a baggage car with two 
wheels, as shown from the following table:— 


Type of Vehicle. 

Traction co-efficient 
on Macadam. 

Traction co-efficient 
on Paving. 

Baggage Car . 

0-030 

0-017 

Diligence. 

0U30 

0-020 

Carriage . 

0-036 

0*034 to 0*037 


Whilst not discrediting Dupoit’s figures, it may be suggested 
that the circumstances in which the experiment was made were 
sufficiently different from the actual conditions of automobilism for 
the formula to which the experiments led not being applied in 
automobile practice. In the absence of a better formula, Morin’s 
formula must be applied, remembering to assign it, however, only 
a certain degree of reliableness, bearing in mind that its values for 
the resistance to rolling are too little. It is to be hoped that de 
Mauni or other experimenters for whom the path has been opened 
will resume the study of the question. 









DETERMINING MOTOR POWER REQUIRED. 


251 


In calculating the maximum useful strain of a motor, the formula 
previously established will give approximately for each particular 
case the value of the resistance to overcome, and consequently 
that of the useful effort to develop, at the wheel tyres. Amongst 
these values it is essential to know that which corresponds to the 
vehicle running in the most unfavourable circumstances possible. 
As soon, then, as the type and weight of the car has been decided 
upon, together with the greatest rate of speed required in ascending 
the steepest gradient with the most unfavourable wind and road, 
the greatest strain that the motor will have to give can be found. 
However, from the beginning it is not impossible for the maximum 
strain to correspond to other circumstances—for example, a less 
steep gradient ascended at a relatively greater speed, or even 
running on a level at a very great speed. Sometimes it 
will be prudent to calculate the value of the motor strain 
corresponding to the various conditions of running, and the 
maximum strain to be relied on will be found. This maximum 
once determined, it must be ascertained that it does not ex¬ 
ceed the limit compatible with the vehicle. A fact not to be 
forgotten is that the imparting of motion to the vehicle is due 
to the adherence developed between the wheel tyres and the 
ground. 

With regard to the adherence between tyres and ground this 
matter greatly interested the first automobile constructors, who 
furnished the wheel tyres with teeth or projections to increase this 
adherence; that this arrangement was unnecessary is proved by 
the daily experience on railways and by the adhesion of the tyres 
of an automobile to the ground, this latter adhesion being con¬ 
siderably more than that of locomotive wheels to the rails; but 
the adhesion has a limit. It should be verified that the maximum 
strain found is less than the friction developed between the wheel 
and the ground. Were this condition not fulfilled the wheels 
would skid, absorbing motive power with sheer loss, injuring the 
tyres, and causing the mechanism to race, and perhaps cause serious 
damage. The measure of adherence is the product of the load 
on the driving wheels multiplied by the co-efficient of friction of 
the tyres on the ground; this co-efficient varies, of course, with the 
state of the road, and is known but imperfectly. Until recent 
years it was requisite to refer to the following figures calculated 


252 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


by Morin, and these can hardly be applied to wood and stone 
pavements:— 

Adherence. 

Iron tyres on oak without coating ... ... ... 62 per cent, of load. 

Iron tyres on oak, wet... ... ... ... ... 26 „ „ „ 

Iron tyres on limestone .49 „ „ „ 

Jeantaud found remarkably different figures: 

Adherence. 

Dry wood pavement ... ... 20 per cent, of load. 

Damp wood pavement ... ... 25 „ „ „ 

Good dry sandstone pavement... 30 „ „ „ 

Damp sandstone pavement 

Dry macadam 

Damp macadam ... 

These figures were obtained on the Paris roads, and cannot be 
applied to every road ; thus there is some clayey soil on which adher¬ 
ence would decrease according to its dampness, the opposite to what 
occurred with the material of Jeantaud’s experiments. It seems, 
however, that an average adherence of from 25 per cent, to 30 
per cent, may be reckoned on, except in the case of dry wood 
pavement. This margin is in most cases great enough to dispel 
all fear of skidding, though this sometimes occurs when starting 
and when applying the brakes on greasy paving or asplialte. If the 
maximum strain is found less than adherence it may be accepted. 

This maximum strain is not that which the motor must 
develop on its shaft, because losses during transmission to the 
wheel tyres must be reckoned. With steam motors and petrol 
motors it is well to estimate these losses at 40 to 50 per cent, 
respectively (pp. 577 and 578), which gives 00 and 50 per cent, for the 
efficiency of the transmission gear. Then the value found for the 
motor strain must be multiplied by |- or by 2, accordingly. The 
simple transmission gear used with an electric motor greatly de¬ 
creases the losses of energy between the motor shaft and tyres. In 
calculating the energy to be supplied by accumulators (Chap. VIII.) 
Hospitalier’s estimate of 90 per cent, as efficiency of the trans¬ 
mission gear was taken, but this is too great in those cases where 
there is not a motor mounted on each wheel, because the losses 
of pressure caused by the differential gear and chain must be 
reckoned. Taking Morris and Salom’s value of 70 per cent, for 
the efficiency of this transmission, it suffices to multiply the useful 


25 „ 


>> 

„ (light cars). 

40 „ 


„ (heavy cars penetrating). 

42 „ 


„ ditto. 


DETERMINING MOTOR POWER REQUIRED. 


253 


motor strain by y° to obtain the power normally to be developed by 
an electric motor. The method just sketched for estimating the 
motive power required is logical, but is not always employed. It 
would have the advantage of proportioning the force of the car to 
the work expected, and preventing very serious miscalculations. 

Whatever the method employed to estimate the power to be 
given to a motor, the resulting horse-power will always exceed that 
of the horses which would have to be yoked to the car in question, 
even reckoning the increase of weight due to the motor mechanism. 
Even though a horse can give a power of only 50 kgm. (362 ft.-lb.) 
per second daring six hours per day, whereas a 1 h.p. motor 
can supply, during 24 hours, its 75 km. (542’5 ft.-lb.) per second, 
a total of 6,480,000 kgm. (46,871,000 ft.-lb.), or six times more 
than the 1,080,000 kgm. (7,812,000 ft.-lb.) given by a horse ; it must 
be remembered that a horse can easily double its muscular power 
for some considerable length of time, and at a difficult passage, quin¬ 
tuple and evenincrease it tenfold, whilst the mechanical motor, especially 
the petrol type, is far from possessing such elasticity. Thus it is 
necessary to give the mechanical motor a maximum power far 
greater than it will regularly be required to develop. Consequently 
from 6 h.p. to 20 h.p., and even more, have become ordinaiy powers for 
carriages which need hardly 2 or 3 horses to haul them. When 
they succeed in utilising all this power, it is not to be wondered at 
that they attain enormous speeds, far outdistancing traction by horses. 

Having shown how to estimate the power of the motor with 
which a car is to be furnished to make it capable of giving a certain 
speed under certain conditions, it remains to be shown how to 
determine the power of a motor actually mounted on an auto¬ 
mobile. The work it gives on the shaft and that developed at the 
tyre of the driving wheels must be measured. Several methods are 
applicable to determine the available power on the shaft; by the 
first it is calculated by basing on theoretic or empiric data, and by 
the second it is measured by submitting the motor to certain tests. 

Ringelmann estimates that combustion of one gramme of petrol 
spirit (0-035 oz.) requires 16'3 1. (28*7 pt.) of air, practically. If Y 
represents the volume in litres of a cylinder, the weight in grammes 
of petrol consumed to fill the cylinder with carburetted 

y 

_ = 0-06135 Y. Let n be the number of 
16 "3 


air will be 



254 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


revolutions of the motor per minute, supposing it to be a four¬ 
cycle motor, it will give 050 n explosions per minute. Ringelmann 
admits that to avoid excessive heating there is only 0 45 n per 

0-45*1 

minute, and thus —A — = 0 0075 n per second. The weight of 


petrol spirit in grammes consumed per second will therefore be 
0 06135 Y x 0 0075 n = 0 00046 n V. Theoretically, each gramme 
of petrol spirit is equivalent to 11 calories (277 B.H.U.). Bingel- 
mann admits that in these 11 calories 0 T 5 x 11 , only = 1*65 
(0’416 B.H.U.) are effectively transformed into work. In other 
words, 075 is the thermal efficiency (p. 577 ). Therefore, the power 
obtained is only T65 x 425 = about 700 kgm. (5,060 ft.-lb.); con¬ 
sequently the motor power is in h.p. 


P = 


700 x 0-Q0Q46 
75 


n V = 0-0043 n V. 


Employment of this formula only requires the dimensions of 
the cylinder and the number of revolutions of the motor per second. 

I he Witz method is as follows:—Given the average pressure 
P m exerted by the explosion of the charge on the piston during its 
driving stroke, and the organic efficiency K of the motor, S being the 
section of the piston and C its stroke, n the number of revolutions 
per minute, and P the effective work in h.p., the formula is: 

S C p m n _ K S C n p m 

V 2 x 60 x 75 — 9 000 E, the motor efficiency, can 

be taken as equal to 0 75, whilst p w is estimated by Witz as 
4 25 kg. (935 lb.). Applied by him to three motors, this 
method gave a slightly less power than that stated by the con¬ 
structors. 

The power may be calculated according to empiric data. Hos- 
pitalier says that in studying the principal elements of construction 
and the working of a certain number of petrol motors, and com¬ 
paring certain specific factors which theoretically would be identical * 
for motors working in the same circumstances as regards richness 
of mixtuie, compression, ignition, and efficiency, it was observed 
that one of these specific factors was constant at about 20 per 
cent., in spite of the difference of proportion of svstem, ignition, 
and power. 7his factor is the proportion of the displacement of 
the cylinders (in litres per second) to the power of the motor (in 







255 


DETERMINING MOTOR POWER REQUIRED. 

poncelets), and it is noticeably equal to 10 (a poncelet represents 
the expenditure of energy equal to 100 kgm. (723 ft.-lb.) per second) 
It suffices, then, to reckon this displacement in litres per second, 
multiplying double the volume ot the cylinder by the number of 

i evolutions per second, and dividing by 10 to obtain the power 
in poncelets. 

The poncelet is equal to 100 kgm. (723 ft.-lb.) per second, whilst 
the horse-power is only 75 kgm. (542’5 ft.-lb.) per second; the number 
found must be divided by 0 75 to obtain the horse-power. Calling n 



Fig. 216 .—Prony Brake Test. 


the number ol revolutions per minute, R the radius of the cylinder, 
C its stroke in cm., the following formula may be applied: 

1 7T R 2 2 0 ' 77 , 1 

or very approximately 


P = 


t r R 3 2 C n 

075 X TOO X 10 X 60 X 


10 , 


C 


P = i^qq This formula gives the power with a probable error ot 
one-fifth. The methods of calculation described have the advantage 

O 

of needing only some dimensions of the cylinder and the number 
of revolutions of the motor, but owing to the uncertainty of the 
accepted values for the co-efficients which figure there they are 
not fully reliable. For estimating motor power more rapidly, the 
motor must be subjected to a regular test, which can be done in 
various ways. 

Brake tests first will be described. The principle of the well- 
known Prony brake consists in causing the motor shaft A (Fig. 216) 
to revolve insidebwo jaws, tightened on it by bolts B B l , and loading 
a lever, G, forming one with these jaws, with a weight, P, sufficient 
to prevent the jaws being carried round by the rotating shaft; the 
h.p. is given by the formula P = 0 0014 pln,p being expressed in 
kg., I the distance in metres of the point of application of the weight 
















256 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


P from axis of the shaft, and n the number of revolutions per 
minute. The distance l is indicated in Fig. 216. To make a 
practical test, the motor must first be fixed firmly, such as by 
screwing down to a wooden frame. Instead of the wooden jaws 
shown in Fig. 216, a flat iron band is often employed, furnished 
with hard wood cleats, and fixed to. the lever on one side by a 
fixed bolt and on the other by a bolt which can be screwed to 
variable degrees of pressure. The band generally surrounds the 
fly-wheel of the shaft, and must be placed as in Fig. 216, the lever 
being below the horizontal diameter of the pulley, so as to ensure 



Figs. 217 and 218. —Cokd Brake Test. 


that the indication given by the weight lifted is correct. With 
the arrangement in which the weighted bar is above, as G 1 , Fig. 216, 
when the lever deviates from the horizontal in a marked manner 

j 

the indication may be very inaccurate. To obtain during the 
experiments constant friction, it is often necessary to adjust the 
tightness of the bolts. Jolts can be decreased by placing indiarubber 
washers under the nuts, these washers being separated by sheet- 
iron discs. As jolts can never be surely avoided, it is prudent to 
employ catches which, if necessary, can stop the lever. To guard 
against the brake seizing, it is essential to lubricate it continually 
with tallow, or with water containing about 10 per cent, of soap, 
lo be conclusive a heat should last ten minutes. The formula 
given applies to a brake maintaining itself in equilibrium on the 
horizontal edge of a knife situated in the plane of the axis of the 
motor shaft. If to establish this equilibrium it was necessarv to 





DETERMINING MOTOR POWER REQUIRED. 257 

place a weight p x at the other end of the lever, this weight p l would 
have to be deducted from the value of p in the formula. The 
Prony brake is the usual method of measuring the power of a 
steam-engine, but it is not suitable for a petrol motor, where the 
sudden variations of work demand concomitant variation of tighten¬ 
ing the brake, which is impossible. Ringelmann has invented a 
brake which automatically regulates this tightening, and its applica¬ 
tion to petrol motors is relatively easy, but the cord brake is 
simpler. 

In the cord brake (Figs. 217 to 220) a cord passes round the motor 
fly-wheel A, one end being fastened to a fixed point B by means 
of the dynamometer D, the other end supporting the weight P: 



Figs. 219 and 220. —Block and Cord on Pulley in Brake Test. 


the dynamometer facilitates regulation by giving the cord a tension 
p\ which is varied by means of a double action tightening screw. 

The formula applied is P = 2 (p - p l ) in which R, r, are 

radii of the pulley and of the cord expressed in metres, p and p l in 
kg., and n the number of revolutions per minute. For a motor 
which does not exceed 8 h.p. a cord of from 5 mm. to 6 mm. 
(0T96in. to 0'236 in.) in diameter suffices, and a pulley from 20 cm. 
to 30 cm. (7*87 in. to 11-8 in.) in diameter for 1,700 revolutions per 
minute. It is only exceptionally that a few drops of soapy water 
or a little plumbago must be applied to the cord, continuous 
lubrication not being necessary. The blocks (see Figs. 219 and 220) 
used in this form of brake are not intended to produce friction, their 
purpose being to keep the rope from spreading and going off the edge 
of the pulley. 

In determining the power of a motor by an electric test, the 
use of a dynamo is convenient; this having a known efficiency R, 
R 


t 

















258 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


it suffices to yoke the motor with it, and note the number ot 
volts E and amperes I recorded by a voltmeter and amperemeter 
placed in the circuit of this dynamo to deduce the power in horse¬ 
power of the formula P = 73G E I R. For great accuracy the 
test can be continued for a long time, and this is not always easy 
to do with the Prony brake, owing to heating. The process is 
especially applicable for a constructor who successively yokes the 
various motors to be tested with his dynamo ; however, it is more 
expensive than the preceding. 

To ascertain the power available at the wheel tyres of an 
automobile, the work given by the motor on its shaft must be 
multiplied by the efficiency of the transmission gear between this 
shaft and the driving wheels. The efficiency, on an average, is 
equivalent to 50, 60, or 70 per cent., according as it refers to a 
motor driven by petrol, steam, or electricity (pp. 252, 257, and 258), 
but the uncertainty of this value affects the result found. 

A direct test can be made easily after measuring in kg. the 
weight p of the car, passengers included; it is driven up a gradient, 
the inclination I of which is known in cm. and the length L in 
metres, N being the number of seconds required to make the ascent, 
and T being the co-efficient of traction in hundredths ; then the 

horse-power is given by the formula: P = 

r 75 N. 

Borame and Julien constructed diagrams and tables published 
by most of the technical journals which facilitate determination of 
(1) work developed during the running of automobiles according 
to the load, that of the car to be included, the rising gradient and 
the speed, independently of the passive resistance engendered by 
the system of transmission adopted; (2) tangential efforts exerted 
on the driving wheels, according to load, gradient, and speed. 


259 


CHAPTER XI. 

TRANSMISSION OF MOTOR POWER TO DRIVING WHEELS. 

In the Cugnot trolley (see p. 2) the motion of the pistons of the 
engine cylinder was transmitted to the axle of the single driving 
wheel of the vehicle by means of arms provided with clicks which 
engaged with ratchet wheels mounted on the axle. In the Ravel 
tricycle carriage of 1868, a prototype of existing vehicles, the steam 
motor drove the rear axle direct by its oscillating cylinders. Jenatzy 
recently constructed an electric car having wheels formed simply of 
an enormous pneumatic tyre surrounding the hub keyed on the 
armature of the motor. Direct driving without the intermission of gear 
works on certain electric tram-cars, where, of course, the rails obviate 
the jolts which an automobile would be subject to from an ordinary 
road, in spite of pneumatic tyres. It is employed constantly for 
locomotives, owing to the double fact that the engines run on rails 
and that the rate of speed allows the wheels to follow the direct 
impulsion of the pistons. However, if the system is possible in the 
distant future for electric and steam vehicles, apparently it will never 
do for petrol cars. 

The Cugnot trolley ran at a speed of 5 km. (3'1 miles) per hour, 
and the Ravel motor made only 100 revolutions per minute, and 
this slow speed rendered possible direct driving. Conditions, how¬ 
ever, are quite different with modern motors: the Scotte steam 
motor gives ordinarily 400 revolutions per minute, whilst the 
Serpollet gives 500 revolutions and can go faster; the de Dion- 
Bouton steam motor gives 600 revolutions per minute. Amongst 
petrol motors, the Benz makes 480 revolutions per minute, the 
GautierAVehrle 600, Amedee Bollee 600, Mors 800, Panhard and 
Levassor’s Phcenix 800 to 850, and the de Dion-Bouton 1,400 and 
more. Electric motors are still more rapid, the Postel-Vinay, con¬ 
structed for the Milde-Mondos automobiles, making 1,800 revolutions 
when the cars run at the rate of 15 km. (9*3 miles) per hour. The 
motor on Jenatzy’s direct transmission car, which broke the kilometre 
R 2 


260 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


record, made 900 revolutions per minute to give the wheels a linear 
speed of 105 km. (65'23 miles) per hour. 

An automobile has to have several rates of speed, as it is obvious 
that it cannot be run at one uniform speed. The electric motor has a 
somewhat great innate elasticity to meet its many needs, and even the 
steam motor might suffice strictly, though it is preferable to aid it by 
mechanical speed-changing gears; but the petrol motor can change 
speed only by modifying its power, always to the detriment of its 
efficiency, and thus a speed-changing device is essential with it. 

The capability of running backward must be possessed by an 
automobile. Electric and steam motors enable backward motion by 
simply reversing the valve gear, but the petrol motor does not admit 

of level sal, and a mechanical device has to be employed for this 
purpose. 

The ability to disengage the motor is a necessity. For abruptly 

stopping a car and making it answer the brake the propelling action 

of the motor must be stopped instantly. When this cannot be done 

by reversing the motion, which is the case with petrol motors, the 

motor must be thrown out of gear. This is done also when it is 

required to run down-hill at great speed, the car being carried along 

by gravitation; for if motor "and wheels are left connected the 

latter cannot exceed the speed of the first, and there is great risk 

of overrunning the motor and injuring some of the mechanism 

During the frequent short stoppages to which an automobile is 

liable the petrol motor must not be allowed to cease work so as 

to avoid the trouble of restarting. Here, again, a device for throwing 

the motor out of gear is necessary. Progressive gear greatly facilitates 
starting. 

The independence of the driving wheels in turning with regard to 
each other is another essential. If each wheel is not driven by a 
separate motor, the two wheels on one axle must not be so fixed that 
they always turn together. The differential gear usually gives this 
independence, and this is described later (see pp. 274 and 275). I n 
the petrol car transmission gear the most usual combination is the 
following: Generally the motor shaft works the main shaft, the two 
being in a direct line, by a gear which enables the two to be con 
nected or disconnected; sometimes the gear is used to obtain forward 
and backward motion of the car and occasionally to alter the rate 
of speed. Cog wheels, belts, or friction plates transmit the main shaft 


TRANSMISSION OF MOTOR POWER TO DRIVING WHEELS. 261 

motion to an intermediary shaft, and the parts mentioned have to 
gu e changes of speed and of direction in cases where these are not 
obtained by the shaft gear. The intermediary shaft carries the differ¬ 
ential gear, or it drives a shaft furnished with that gear. Finally, the 
differential shaft works the car wheels by endless chains, gear wheels, 
01 jointed axles, these different parts will be studied in succession. 

Clutch gears include the crab systems, friction (straight or 
inverted cones with bands), magnetic, and hydraulic. Crab clutches 
have each of their two sleeves keyed on one of the shafts to be 
coupled, the first sleeve fixed and the second movable longitudinally, 
and being furnished with projections and slots engaging with one 
another. To adapt them for reversing motion the following device 
can be employed. A cog wheel is keyed at the end of the motor 
shaft and constantly gears with two bevel wheels, each forming one 
with a socket on the end of a shaft perpendicular to the first; on 
each of these shafts is a sliding clutch coupling. When the couplings 
are away from the clutches corresponding with them, the two cog 
wheels turn with their loose sockets on their shafts, which remain 
motionless. To run the car forwards the sleeve keyed on the forward 
motion shaft is pushed towards the clutches of its socket and the 
latter is connected with the former, which it entrains as it moves. 
For backward motion the other sleeve is geared. Clutch couplings 
do not allow of easy starting; the strains undergone by the car are 
transmitted to the motor, causing a risk of breakage or jambing of 
parts of the motor with consequent disturbance of the valves. For 
this reason a friction clutch usually is preferred. 

The friction coupling with straight cones has a cone keyed down 
on each of the shafts to be connected, one fixed and the other 
movable longitudinally to enter into the first, under the action of 
a fork moved by levers and a pedal. The most common arrangement 
is for the motor shaft to carry a hollow cone and the other shaft a 
solid cone maintaining a spring, the latter normally inside the 
former. The driver, by means of a pedal lever, can instantly stop the 
action of the spring and throw the second shaft out of gear. 

Inverted cones are so shaped that the solid cone can enter the 
hollow one only in two pieces, the hollow cone being constituted by 
a conical ring which is screwed to the solid cone of which it forms the 
outer surface. The clutch is operated by separating the end of the 
solid cone from that of the hollow one by traction, and not by 


262 


THE AUTOMOBILE . 


bringing them close by pressure as with the straight cone coupling. 
Whichever ol these two systems is employed, an inconvenient thrust 
is exerted on one of the bearings surrounding the coupling, and this 
thrust is avoided with the following systems. 

The Villard and Bonnafous friction clutch now is common. It is 
shown by Figs. 221 to 223, in which X is the motor shaft at the end 
of which the friction cup B is keyed, Y the main shaft on which the 
piece C is keyed; the peculiar form of C is shown in Fig. 223, it 
being a radial arm with a strap cast with a half-disc. Wound round 



Fig-. 221 .—Bonnafous Clutch. 


this piece is the leather-lined steel band A, which is an open circle 
with joints D at its two extremities, the left extremity being hinged 
to the arm of C and the right to the end of strap lever E ; the other 
end of the strap lever is coupled with C at the point G and with the 
top end of the extensible connecting rod J by a ball-and-socket joint. 
Finally, the latter is hinged also by a similar joint to the arm of the 
clutch coupling, which slides along the shaft. In the position shown 
by Fig. 222 there is no contact between the inner surface of the cup 
B and the strap A, so the shafts are out of gear. To put them into 
gear it suffices to move the coupling I to right and left on the 
shaft Y; the arm of this coupling, guided by the movement of roller 
L on the bracket P, forces the rod J to return to a vertical position, 
which it cannot do without acting upwards on the left extremity of 
the lever E. Its right extremity then brings the band against the cup 




















TRANSMISSION OF MOTOR POWER TO DRIVING WHEELS. 263 


B, to which it adheres gradually. The apparatus is regulated easily by 
altering the working length of the connecting rod by means of screws, 
and so it can be made possible for the progressive application of the 
band against the cup to be completed before the slide coupling has 
travelled two-tliirds of its course, the compression given during the 
other third bringing the plasticity and the elasticity of the leather 
into play; as the connection rod nears the vertical, gradually 
decreasing lengths travelled by the lever E correspond to equal 
lengths travelled by the coupling. When the slide coupling has 
reached the end of its travel, the rod J has passed beyond the vertical 



Fio-s. 222 and 223. —Bonnafous Clutch. 

o 


to the left; then it tends to tighten the roller L and coupling 1 
against the piece C so that engagement is maintained without any 
thrust of the fork, which has merely acted to bring the coupling near. 
However, engagement is maintained onty for direction of rotation of 
the shaft X, which tends to open the ribbon ; in the other direction, 
where friction tends to close it, the large arm of the lever E would 
yield and the apparatus would glide. This is a valuable mechanism 
for decreasing shocks in transmission; these shocks occur when the 
leading wheel of the gear becomes the driven wheel. In this case the 
gliding inseparable from changing the direction of rotation of the 
motor shaft causes loosening, which prevents reversing of the work of 
the geared wheels. 

The Gautier-Wehrle engaging gear is employed on the cars of the 
Societe Continentale d’Automobiles. This gear is shown by Figs. 224 












































































264 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


and 225. In these figures a is the motor shaft; b, fly wheel; c, pro¬ 
jecting ring forming part of fly wheel; cl, metal band lined with 
leather, e, the ends having screws, r, to regulate the length of band 
and to connect it to the arms n, which are pivoted at o. Between 

the arms n, and operated by 
the fork n l , to be. seen in 
Fig. 224, glides the coupling 
m, keyed to the axle g by l, 
Normally, this coupling keeps 
the arms sufficiently apart to 
allow the band d to rest 
against the ring c, motion of 
the shaft a then being trans¬ 
mitted to coupling m and 
shaft g. By the action of a 
pedal and a system of levers 
which operate the fork n 1 , the 
coupling may be drawn in the 
direction of the arrow 0 , and 
then the arms are kept apart 
no longer and the ends s s of 
the band no longer adhere 
to the belt; consequently the 
motion of the motor shaft 
is not transmitted. 

Figs. 226 and 227 represent 
the Julien gear constructed by 
the Benoit firm, the type for 
motor-cycles and voiturettes 
transmitting a power of 0 3 
h.p. per 100 revolutions. The 
entraining sleeve B is keyed 
on the motor shaft and sur¬ 
rounded by an open tempered 
steel band G, resembling a segment of a piston, and upon it is riveted 
an air-dried raw skin H, surrounded in turn by the loose cup C, the 
centre of which is keyed with the driving cog wheel. At one of the 
ends of the band G is fixed the thrust-plate J, which engages in a 
hollow of the coupling B ; at the other end of the band is the 



iigs. 224 and 225. —Elevation and Section of 
Gautier-Wehkl£ Clutch. 


























































TRANSMISSION OF MOTOR POWER TO DRIVING WHEELS. 265 


loosening plate I, which constantly presses against the lever L, which 
is hinged in strap of coupling B. Perpendicularly to its axis the 
lever L carries the pivot of a loose roller N, which the wedge P, 
belonging to the ordinary forked lever coupling, raises or lowers 
according to the direction of the movement. Thus, as this wedge is 
drawn back the roller N descends to allow the lever L to rock under 
the reaction of the spring band G, which progressively applies itself 
against the inner side of the cup C. When the point of the wedge P 
has disengaged the roller N the apparatus is geared completely, and 
motion is transmitted without gliding or lateral reaction on the 




Figs. 226 and 227. —End View and Section of Julien Clutch for Motor Cycles. 

bearings. The band G rests against the cup by virtue of its own 
expansive energy, thus obviating the employment of a wedging 
device or of a regulator and giving great smoothness at starting. 
The leather wears evenly, and is replaced easily and economically. 
This gear has but a very few parts, is simple and durable, and is 
particularly suitable for automobiles. The spring is prevented from 
leaving its place by riveted spurs, which run freely in grooves made 
around the coupling sleeve B. Any oil which would fall on the 
leather, and by oiling the surfaces in contact prevent the gear from 
working, is caught by the inner edge of a cavity made around the 
nave of the cup, the oil escaping through orifices. 

In the Julien engaging gearing combined with a driving pulley 
for automobile use (Fig. 228), there are special devices for oiling. 
One arm of the pulley forms a cylinder, C, containing a piston, P, 









































































































266 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


which is subjected to the action of centrifugal force. To prevent the 
formation of a vacuum the lower surface is brought into communica¬ 
tion with air by an orifice, 0, 0 003 mm. ( 0001 in.) in diameter, made in 
the cylinder. The oil is poured into this cylinder through a screw plug 
opening. A spur fixed in the plate spring R prevents this plug from 
coming unscrewed during the working. Under the influence of the 
piston thrust the oil begins to flow on the shaft through the copper 



pipe T. This system of oiling is both copious and economic. In 
such a form this gearing has often been employed directly with a 
petrol motor; its cup is fixed on the fly wheel of the motor or cast 
on with it, whilst the spring clutch is keyed on the first speed¬ 
changing shaft. 

Various sizes of Julien couplings have cups of the following 
interior diameters: 110 mm., 120 mm., 150 mm., 200 mm., and 
250 mm. (4%3 in., 4’7 in., 5’9 in., 7'8 in., and 9'8 in.), and with these 
the power at 100 revolutions per minute is U f, 1, and 2 li.p. 
respectively. 

The Julien speed-changing mechanism for a motor cycle or 


































































































































































































TRANSMISSION OF MOTOR POWER TO DRIVING WHEELS. 267 


voiturette, weighing only 250 kg. (5501b.) at most, is shown by 
Fig. 229. Two Julien couplings placed symetically, and worked by 





1 V/. 



'7S/S/A-V/Z 



IX 










{///VS"'' 




jzJL - -h 




' 









a common sleeve with fork, make it possible to attain two different 
rates of speed and to throw the motor out of gear when required. 
When the sleeve is pushed to the left the coupling on the right lor 
slow speed is engaged, and vice versa. Where three forward speeds 













































































































































































































































































































268 


TIIE AUTOMOBILE. 


are needed and one backward speed, the arrangement represented in 
Fig. 230 is adopted. In this, two pairs of Julien couplings, placed as 
in the previous case, act, and they are moved in the same manner, 
though their levers can be made to form one Avith a cam worked by 
a single rod or a fly wheel. In Figs. 229 and 230 A is the motor shaft. 

The Piat friction coupling, Figs. 231 and 232, consists of two 
parts—the cup A and friction pulley B, which can be combined 
in two Avays. To couple them they are keyed on tAvo shafts respec¬ 



tively, prolonging each other, or one is loose and the other fixed on a 
common shaft to enable engagement and disengagement without loss 
of speed by gliding. There are tAvo breaks diametrically opposite in the 
rim of the friction pulley; each half forms a flexible arm, decreasing in 
thickness from one extremity rigidly connected Avith the nave to.the 
other, Avhich is pushed open by a screw mechanism or allowed to 
shut. Around this pulley is a leather packing to augment the co¬ 
efficient of friction and to render oiling unnecessary. The threads of 
the tAvo screws are at an angle of 45°, and the screAvs serve to extend 
the pulley’s flexible arms, and they are governed by hinged cranks 
by aid of small connecting rods on each side of the coupling sleeve, 
Avliicli rotates Avith one of the shafts and can be displaced under the 

































































Tit A NS Ml S SION OF MOTOR POWER TO DRIVING WHEELS. 269 

action of a forked lever. The axle of each of the cranks is prolonged 
by one of these screws and rotates in the radial arm of its flexible 
half-arm. This screw acts on a nut pivoted loosely in a strap hinged 
at one end with the thin part of the other flexible half-arm. Thus 
coupling can be operated gradually and smoothly and disengagement 
can be made instantaneously. The apparatus is balanced perfectly, 
and as entraining is caused only by vertical pressures to the exclusion 



of all lateral pressures there is no translatory resultant in the couple 
of rotation. All parts of this coupling gear are made of cast steel, 
reducing the weight, giving great elasticity and resistance, and 
increasing the co-efficient of friction. 

Several other kinds of friction couplings are employed for cars. 
In the Megy system the circular band is applied by aid of spiral 
springs arranged in a string against the friction cup; normally these 
springs do not press against the band, but exert a thrust on it when a 
pin is placed between them. The apparatus is reversible, and can 
with a special device be employed for changes of speed. Krebs has an 
idea for a magnetic clutch on the principle found in the magnetic 
coupling of de Bovet, in which adherence is obtained by electro-mag¬ 
netic action. In Herschmann’s hydraulic coupling the adherence of the 









































































270 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


spring and the friction cup is produced by oil admitted by a valve. 
Hall’s hydraulic coupling gives a variable speed, and it has been tried 
practically ; however, it is very complicated. 

In the friction plate system, either the main shaft or the fly wheel 
carries, or in any case moves, a plate against which rubs a roller 
entraining the intermediary shaft in its motion. When at one side 
of the iplate, the roller can glide along the shaft and give a forward 
movement; when it reaches the centre, movement ceases; and there 
is backward motion when it passes to the other side. The system is 
simple and adapts itself to slight changes of speed, but it has a great 
inconvenience; to avoid the roller skidding on the plate and causing 
considerable loss of transmitted power, the adherence, which is 
especially weak near the centre, may be increased by pressing the 
roller hard against the plate; but this pressure absorbs power and 
causes wear owing to the thrust produced between the plate shaft 
and one of the bearings, by the resistance presented to the 
rotation of the plate; in spite of this, Lepape and Ringelmann think 
highly of the system. 

Belts may be considered here. For every different speed the 
main shaft has a large, permanently fixed pulley, and the inter¬ 
mediary shaft has two juxtaposed pulleys, one keyed and the other 
loose, a belt running to all these pulleys. To engage, the belt is 
made to pass, by means of a fork, by lateral displacement from the 
loose pulley to the fixed one. Sometimes the set of pulleys and belts 
is replaced by a single belt and two cones with parallel axes so placed 
that the large base of one is opposite the small base of the other. 
These cones have notched or smooth sides to enable progressive 
variations of speed, a belt stretcher being necessary to engage the 
gear. Instead of cones two extensible pulleys can be employed, and 
then the belt does not move transversally, but the diameter of the 
pulleys changes under it to keep it taut and give it variable speeds. 
Defective adherence is the great inconvenience of belts, because it 
causes a considerable loss of power. To increase the adherence, 
sometimes indiarubber belts are used on leather-covered pulleys. 
Other defects are the necessity of often re-stretching the belts and 
the great space occupied. The advantages are that they are simple, 
economical, silent, and sufficiently elastic to avert all risk of smashing 
any part by an abrupt change of speed, etc. By its means, also, the 
reversing gear may be used as a brake, an impossibility with gear 


TRANSMISSION OF MOTOR POWER TO DRIVING WHEELS. 271 


liable to breakage. With belts, retrograde motion is obtained by a 
set of pulleys united by an intercrossing belt. In toothed gear, as 
many pinions as rates of speed to be obtained are keyed, screwed, 
and brazed on the main shaft. An equal number of wheels is on the 
intermediary shaft, and they remain free to glide longitudinally so 
that successively each can be made to engage with its corresponding 
pinion; most frequently the wheels are carried by a sleeve which 
runs along the shaft; sometimes, as in the Bollee voiturette, the shaft 
itself moves lengthwise. Instead of engaging at the side, the gear can 
engage by the circumference, Fig. 233, in which K denotes first speed, 




/ 


/ 

//* Pq-tv r-'W'YJ s\ m 

- ~7 2tpC T V I VI 




/ 


II 

// \\!| 
/ / ✓ N xji 

' i A f, 

"Ti j i /)( 

i i ./ VAv i 4 " YA 


I 


C' " i "FV w 

-4 -V-.J—_.u: 


v *v 


\ "■ vA A /i\y 

\ / Hi i 

\ r --Li n\\ tv / 
7 I /; \ 

, / IT '■ 


Gt*^I • 
;-<r 

. \ / 

,N 


\ 


v b 


Fig-. 233. —Rossel Toothed Gear 
Transmission. 


L second, I third, J fourth, and 0 backward motion. Communication 
then is established between the wheel keyed on the motor shaft and 
the wheel on the intermediary shaft, parallel to the first, by a set of 
double pinions, formed of two unequal parts, one gearing with the 
first wheel and the other with the second. The diameters of these 
double pinions vary, so that whilst the motor shaft rotates at one 
speed different speeds may be transmitted to the intermediary shaft. 
All these pinions are mounted on a plate turning round the motor 
shaft, so as to be brought successively into contact with the wheel of 
the intermediary shaft. This arrangement, invented by Rossel, of 
Lille, and adapted by him to a car in 1895, is yet employed on the 
Rochet cars of the Compagnie Generale des Cycles. It prevents 
shocks on the wheel cheeks, but it is a question whether it does not 
cause more serious shocks on the teeth themselves. Sometimes the 




272 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


main shaft pinions glide along and the toothed wheels then are keyed 
on the intermediary shaft, and instead of being juxtaposed may be 
concentric, in which case the axle on which the pinions are mounted 
occupies the position of the horizontal diameter of the common cir¬ 
cumference (see Fig. 463, p. 476, showing the Henroid transmission). 
The respective radii of these toothed wheels are calculated so as to 
reduce the number of revolutions of the main shaft in proportions suit¬ 
able for the required speeds of the car. The greatest reduction found 
in practice is that of 18 to 1, employed in the Krieger electric fore- 



Fig-. 234.— Humpage Epicycloidal Gear. 


carriage. At the exhibition of 1899, however, there was an apparatus 
with skew gear for progressive gearing and changes of speed. This 
apparatus (Figs. 234 and 235), invented by Humpage, is placed in 
the gear case M, and unites the two shafts end to end. On the full 
speed shaft there is a pinion, B, which gears with cog E, which, in 
turn, gears with wheel H. For the moment, suppose that the latter 
is fixed to the gear case M. The wheel F turns with wheel E, which 
has a greater diameter, the former entraining pinion G keyed on the 
slow speed shaft. 

By varying the number of teeth, N can be given very varied 
values without altering dimensions of the gearing or the total 
number of teeth. The apparatus exhibited gave, with a small 
volume, a proportion of reduction equal to 100. If H is left 










V 


TRA NS MIS SION OF MOTOR POWER TO DRIVING WHEELS. 273 

ndependent of the gear case M, it will turn loose around axle G, and 
the motion of the pinion B will not be transmitted to this shaft; but 
! f Wlth a brake surrounding pulley N the pinion is immobilised, there 
is a transmission of motion. Thus modified, the apparatus enables 
progressive engaging and disengaging. Independently of great 
reductions of speed which it makes possible, this apparatus has other 
advantages: (1)'Compact, and in a case which is a protection from 
dust and wear, it assures the two services of engaging and change of 
speed. (2) Efficiency is very great, 3 kilo-watts having been trans- 



Fig\ 23-5. —Section of Humpage Gear. 


mitted from a shaft peifoimmg 800 revolutions to another performing 
only 100, with an average efficiency of 90 per cent. (3) In com 
sequence of employment of two satellite trains diametrically opposite, 
the moment of rotation is replaced by a couple and the reactions on 
the bearings are suppressed. Moreover, owing to the work being 
distributed between these two trains of gear, the teeth are much less 
strained. Backward motion, operated usually at slow speed, is 
obtained by interposition of a supplemental pinion in the train 
of gear. 

M hen toothed gear is well cut the loss of power is small, and 
there is the further advantage of but little space being occupied ; but 
it is costly without being elastic, and it is noisy if raw hide gear or 
bevel gear are not employed. It does not allow of the vehicle 
s 



































274 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


passing from one speed to another. To change speed one must 
disengage and alter the wheels in gear, and if this is not done 
skilfully it is easy to damage the teeth. 

The Lang device, shown by Fig. 236, keeps the wheels and 
pinions constantly geared; the latter are loose, and they are keyed 
by displacement inside the hollow intermediary. The keying of the 
loose wheels also can be obtained by clutch couplings, as in the Julien 
systems (Figs. 229 and 230) and in the Duryea (Fig. 496, p. 505). 

If the two driving wheels of a car are keyed upon their axle 



tig. 23G. Lang .Transmission Gear. Fig. 237. —Differential Gear with 

Conical Pinions. 


in such a manner that they are obliged to constantly perform the 
same number of revolutions at the same rate of speed on a straight 
road, they will revolve in harmony, but when making the least 
turn, the inside wheel, having less distance to travel, will skid, 
causing friction and wearing away the tyre, and the security of the 
vehicle will be endangered. By means of the differential gear the 
wheels revolve independently of each other. Instead of being in 
one piece, the axle is in halves, a a 1 (Fig. 237); one of the wheels, 
i t , is fixed on each half, and also a pinion, b &h gearing with 
pinions c <4 ; these pinions move around their axles, which run 
along two ladii of the toothed wheel d, with which they form one. 
This wheel is driven by the motor shaft by aid of the pinion visible 
above. . With this device the wheels proportion their speeds 
respectively to the roads on which they run. Instead of beino- 


















































































































TRANSMISSION OF MOTOR POWER TO DRIVING WHEELS. 275 


formed of cone gearing the differential may have flat wheels, which 
are less cumbersome (see Fig. 238). Conical; or flat, they are 
generally enclosed in a gear case, which will hold oil and protect 
them from dust. 

The road wheels have been supposed to be keyed on their axles, 
but they are generally loose, driven by endless chains gearing with 
sprockets keyed on the intermediary shaft. A differential gear on 
this shaft now is necessary, or it can be replaced by a pawl and ratchet 
gear. Brouhot and Co. fit a toothed wheel to the nave of each wheel 
(see Figs. 466 to 468, p. 478), and to each end of the axle a plate, 
around the axis of which a three-branched click is hinged, the lower 



Fi- 238 .—Differential with Flat Pinions. 

o 


one being engaged in a cavity of the axle. ^ When the axle turns, the 
click rocks around its axis, and one or the other of its higher 
branches, according to the direction of the motion, engages in one of 
the notches of the cog-wheel, and entrains the wheel of the vehicle 
When the vehicle is turning, the outer wheel, to acquire^a greater 
speed than the other, has only to run before the click, the click 
returning into contact with the toothed wheel when speeds are again 
the same. 

The intermediary shaft carries two sprockets, which, by means of 
endless chains, drive two toothed wheels on the spokes or hub of the 
driving wheels. Motor chains resemble bicycle chains with blocks or 
rollers. Block chains consist of elongated links, in which gear the 
teeth of the wheels, the links being connected to each other by 
shorter solid links fastened with chilled steel rivets. In roller chains 
all the links are elongated, and they are united by rivets, which form 
























276 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


pivots, around which the rollers can turn freely. Any gliding of the 
solid links of the block chain on the toothed wheels is replaced in the 
roller chain by the running of the rollers, and, theoretically , the efficiency 
should be greater in the roller chain. Benoit’s block chain, Fig. 239, 



Fig. 239. —Benoit Block Chain. 


is constructed with a view to making friction and wear bear upon the 
interior surface of the solid links and the exterior surface of the 
sockets surrounding the axles. Chains suffer greatly from wear; by 
elongating their pitch the teeth are prevented from fitting exactly. 



Fig. 240.— Benoit Roller Chain. 


and the looseness causes losses in power transmission. Benoit 
endeavoured to replace the blocks with double rollers, the dimensions 
being calculated so as not to require any alteration in the toothed 
wheels, and the improved chain gives great smoothness, and though 



Fig. 241. —Brampton Block Chain. 


of somewhat delicate construction is less liable to smash than a block 
chain. In a third type of chain (Fig. 240) constructed by the Benoit 
firm the same interval is made between all the rollers, and there is 
only one roller in each tooth. This chain has the advantages of the 













































































































TRANSMISSION OF MOTOR POWER TO DRIVING WHEELS. 277 


second type, whilst being lighter and cheaper. Evidently it is 
desirable to obtain unification of chains by forming guiding rules 
which will not hamper the constructor. The Touring Club of France 
organised a commission, which proposed the following dimensions:— 


Block and Double Roller 

Chains. 

Single Roller Chains. 

Pitch. 

Width. 

Solid. 

Pitch. 

Width. 

Solid. 

nun. 

linn. 

mm. 

mm. 

mm.' 

mm. 

35 

20 

24 

25 

13 

11 

40 

20 

28 

30 

15 

13 

45 

20 

32 

35 

20 

16 

50 

20 

36 

40 

20 

18 

60 

25 

42 

50 

25 

22 

70 

30 

48 

60 

30 

27 

85 

35 

60 

75 

35 

33 

100 

40 

70 





By the word “ solid ” in the above table is meant the length of the 
solid parts, by “ width ” the inner breadth of the space, and by 
“ pitch ” the length of the solid and the space. 



Fig-. 242.— Brampton Roller Chain. 

The Brampton block chain is shown by Fig. 241, the roller 
chain by Fig. 242, and the duplex roller chain by Fig. 243. 



Fig. 243. —Brampton Duplex Roller Chain. 


The Renolds chain, known as the Varietur (Figs. 244 and 245) was 
designed to avoid the inconveniences due to elongation of the pitch ; the 


































































































278 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


links are united by pivots, and their top part is slightly curved and the 
lower part constituted by two triangular teeth joined by a semi-circle. 
The gearing has suitably cut teeth, and the two sets of links being 
hinged on the same pivot, they sink like wedges between the teeth, 
which they hold strongly. If the pitch happens to alter by elongation 
the triangular wedges sink less between the teeth, but the gearing 
remains just as close. It is claimed that the form of the top part, 
somewhat similar to that of a belt, more or less prevents dust from 
getting into the teeth of the wheels. 



Motor chain links so often rupture that it is usual to carry a spare 
chain in the car; and some constructors, especially Jacquet and 
Bordet, have endeavoured to make chains with links which, when 
broken, can be replaced easily during a journey. 

Whatever be the system employed, there must be a pliant connec¬ 
tion between the differential shaft and the axle, the distance between 
which varies with flexion of the springs; but in order that it may 
vary as little as possible, the two parts are united by a connecting rod 
hinged at each end, which makes the axle describe part of a circle 
around the shaft. The horizontal component of this motion is 
obtained by placing the shaft and axle in about the same horizontal 
plane or inclining the nipper springs so that the relative displacement 
may take place according to a tangent to the course of flexion of the 



















































































































































TRANSMISSION OF MOTOR POWER TO DRIVING WHEELS. 279 


tops of the springs. To allow it to do so, flexible springs with rounded 
ends are employed, and they are united with the frame by side pieces 
which give them a certain amount of play. If nipper springs are 
employed, the pieces connecting the springs with the frame are made 
to slide in gussets. 

The breakage of a chain, with the consequence that the car is left 
with one driving wheel only, may cause overturning if the car is 
moving at full speed; in any case it prevents continuing the journey, 
because the moving wheel describes a circle round the stationary one. 
If by arresting the differentia^ gear it were possible to give the wheels 
interdependence, it would be possible to proceed with a single chain ; 
this is the case with the Orient Express car, in which a ring glides on 
a socket, and by entering a clutch bars the differential. 



Fi o> 246 .—De Dion-Bouton Hinged Axle and Transmission Gear. 
& * 


The chief advantage of chain driving is the flexibility it gives to 
the transmission; and this flexibility is of particular value with a 
petrol motor whose couple varies every moment. With the electric 
motor giving a constant couple the chain can be dispensed with 
easily, transmission being obtained by aid of gear which can be 
enclosed in a gear case. 

Chains, in spite of their defects, but owing to their simplicity, are 
the most common medium of power transmission on automobiles, 
but, as has been the case with the bicycle, endeavours have been 
made to replace it by a device more easy to regulate and less liable 

to snap. 

In the Bollee car the differential shaft has at each end a bevel 
pinion gearing with a pinion keyed on a shaft running lengthwise 
through the vehicle; at the other end of the shaft is a second bevel 
pinion which gears with a toothed wheel fixed on the corresponding 
wheel of the vehicle. Each of the longitudinal shafts is broken twice 











































































































































280 


tee automobile. 


by two universal joints, which enable it to take any required angle 
to follow the movements of the body of the car (see Figs. 448 and 
449, pp. 460 and 461). 

Ihe de Dion-Bouton power transmission system has hinged axles; 
this system, like the chainless systems in general use, has the 
advantage of allowing the axle to be set for the driving wheels, that 
is, the journal inclined to the horizontal, which is almost inapplicable 
with ordinary chain gear, with which the wheels must move in the 
same vertical plane as the chain (see Fig. 246). The motion of 
the differential is transmitted to the wooden fellies of the driving 
wheels by hinged axles and metal spokes, independent of the wooden 



Fig. 247 .— Gautier-Wehhlk Hinged Axle. 


spokes ; the universal joints enable the axles to bend with the roll of 
the ground without straining the springs, and the metal spokes 
prevent strain from the driving gear to the wooden spokes, which 
have simply to support the weight of the vehicle. In Fig. 246, A 
denotes the axle, C ball bearings, F Y brake drums, H axle box, S 
ball-bearing supports, and T journals. 

Gautier and Wehrle connect the intermediary shaft by ball and 
socket joints with the journals upon which the driving wheels are 
keyed —see Fig. 247, in which A is shaft receiving motion of the shaft 
for changing speed ; B, pinion mounted on shaft A ; C, toothed wheel 
of differential gear on shaft D D; EE, universal joints transmitting 
motion of axle D D to shafts FF ; H H, universal joints transmitting 
motion from shafts F F to the journals on which the wheels L L 
are keyed ; and Iv Iv, springs supporting frame. When one of the 
wheels rises or falls more than the other the inclination of shafts F F 
is modified in consequence. All is arranged in such a way that with 




















TRA NS MIS SION OF MOTOR POWER TO DRIVING WHEELS. 281 


a full load the axle is almost horizontal. The wheels are inclined 
downwards. 

With regard to transmission gear in steam automobiles, this is 
simplified greatly by the progressiveness of the action of steam, which 
makes engaging gear useless for smooth starting, by the elasticity of 
the motor, and by the facility for backward movement, which is 
accomplished always by reversing the valve gear, easily operated by 
aid of link motion and eccentrics. 

In the de Dion-Bouton omnibus, the motor shaft drives by one 
of the two trains of gear at full or slow speed, the differential shaft 
motion being communicated to the driving wheels by the hinged axle. 

In the Scotte omnibus, the crank shaft drives an intermediary 



Fig-. 248. —Coulthard Compensating Gear Shaft. 


shaft by aid of two pinions, this latter shaft being connected to 
the differential by an endless chain, which in turn drives the rear 
wheels of the vehicle by two smaller chains. 

In the Weidkneckt omnibus, motion is transmitted to the 
differential by gear and by endless chains to the wheels. 

The steam omnibus of the Compagnie Generale des Automobiles 
is driven by a rotary motor whose shaft has a friction coupling; 
toothed gear entrains the differential wheel, whose shaft, in two 
parts, drives the rear wheels. The changes of speed are obtained 
in a very satisfactory manner by the motor alone. The system of 
gearing in steam cars being simple and efficient, belts or friction 
plates are not adopted. 

The Coulthard transmission is illustrated in connection with the 
Coulthard motor (Figs. 48 and 49, p. 78). The motor crank shaft, 
carried in two long bearings, together with the eccentrics, is cut out 
of a solid steel billet, and on one end of the shaft is a pinion engaging 
with a gear wheel on the second motion shaft. On a square in the 













































































282 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


middle of this shaft glides a pair of unequal pinions, either of which 
may be caused to engage with corresponding gear wheels carried on 
the crown of the compensating gear. The compensating gear shaft is 
shown separately by Fig. 248, and it is the only shaft projecting 
through the casing. It carries a pinion at each end, and there is a 
locking gear for putting the compensating gear out of action and 
causing both of the driving wheels to revolve together. The whole of 
the gearing runs in a bath of oil, is of cast steel, machine cut, and 



Fig. 249 .—De Dion-Bouton Speed-changing Gear in Case. 


keys are not used in the transmission gear. The compensating gear 
shaft (Fig. 248) is carried in long bushed bearings attached to the 
casing, and these bushes are in turn carried in spherical hearings 
supported in cast steel brackets rigidly bolted to the main channel 
frame. 

The method of supporting the motor cylinder end allows a ball- 
and-socket motion, so that the motor, motion work, gearing and 
shafts, being self-contained in a rigid casing, are kept in accurate 
mesh and alignment, whilst the method of suspension allows the main 
frame some elasticity and spring without setting up internal strains 
and cross wind in the transmission gear. Pivoted to the back axle 
under each side frame are two thrust rods through which the drive is 
transmitted to the compensating gear brackets. Renolds’ improved 











TRANSMISSION OF MOTOR POWER TO DRIVING WHEELS. 283 


chains are used, forming a flexible connection between the back axle 
and tlie compensating gear shaft. 

In petrol automobiles the transmission gear is most complicated, 
the various elements previously mentioned being combined in 
various ways. 

In the toothed gear system employed on the de Dion-Bouton 
tricycle there is no engaging or retrograde motion. The motor shaft 
simply drives the wheels by a small pinion which gears Avith a wheel 
on the differential box. The disadvantage of this is that frequently 
it imposes a speed other than the regular one, though this is 
remedied as much as possible by varying the lead of ignition in 



Fig. 250.— Section of de Dion-Bouton Speed-changing Gear. 


the motor cylinder and the composition of the charge. But it 
becomes essential to be able to reduce the speed when ascending 
somewhat steep gradients, especially when the tricycle hauls a 
voiturette or is transformed into a quadricycle by addition of a fore 
carriage. For this purpose is employed a demultiplicator which Avorks 
by the addition of a neAv train of gear. Demultiplicators enable the 
motor to be thrown out of gear Avhen the tricycle is to be worked by 
pedals alone or pushed by hand, because by suppressing the Avork 
due to air compression in the motor cylinder the manual labour is 
much lessened. ^ 

The transmission gear of the de Dion-Bouton petrol car is shoAvn 
by Figs. 249 to 255. The speed-changing gear is to the right of 
the motor, and 'all its parts are enclosed in an aluminium case 

























































































































284 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


{see Fig. 249); it comprises two shafts, in each of which are mounted 
two gears, these being geared on the lirst of the shafts, which is 




Fig. 252 .—De Dion-Bouton 
Differential Gear. 


connected directly to the crank shaft of the motor by means of a 
coupling sleeve. The gears on the second or counter shaft are not 




mm. 




Figs. 253 to 255.— Sections of de Dion-Bouton Reversing Gear. 


fixed, but either of them may be gripped by its respective friction 
clutch ; both of the clutches are fitted to the counter shaft, and when 
one is engaged the other is liberated. Two sectional views of the 










































































































































































TRANSMISSION OF MOTOR POWER TO DRIVING WHEELS. 285 


variable speed mechanism are shown by Figs. 250 and 251, the letter 
references in which are : A, aluminium case ; B, coupling-box ; C, 
rack; D, entraining gears ; E, gear boxes; H, guide screw of rack; 
K, groove for guide-screw; M, motor shaft; P, pinions keyed to shaft 
The de Dion-Bouton backward motion gear is illustrated by Figs. 252 
to 255, Fig. 252 showing the positions of the pinions. Fig. 253 is a 



Fig 256 

Figs. 256 and 257.— Sections 
of Metz Speed-changino 
Gear. Fig. 258.— Collar 
for Fixing Demultipli- 
cator. 



section through the axle showing the coupling bolts, Fig. 254 a section 
showing the springs, and Fig. 255 a section showing the pinions. 

The R. de Metz speed-changing apparatus, Figs. 256 to 258, is 
applicable to light cars and motorcycles. The motor shaft A has 
screwed to its end the piece B containing channels which convey oil 
from the lubricator H to the various parts. Keyed on B is clutch 
coupling C, which, by moving the fork R, the driver can isolate 
for disengagement, bringing it successively into contact with pinions 
D and E for slow and full speed respectively. When it gears with E, 
the motion of the shaft A is transmitted directly to pinion K, 











































































































































286 


THE AUTOMOBILE . 


mounted on the same hollow shaft as pinion E. When, on the 
contrary, the coupling C forms one with the pinion D, the latter drives 
pinion E by aid of the large pinion D 1 under pinion Q, both of these 
being keyed on the shaft M, thus driving pinion K also; but motion 
is transmitted only after undergoing two demultiplications. Fig. 258 



represents the collar by means of which the demultiplicator is fixed 
to the big tube behind the tricycle at the required point in the 
transversal direction. Regulation in height is operated by aid of a 

dovetail piece governed by the screw I, shown at the base of 
big. 257. 

The Janietel speed-changing device has two speeds, and a friction 
coupling allows of passing from one to the other. The motor can 
be set working whilst the tricycle remains motionless, and the tricycle 
can be started at slow speed without working the pedals even on 





























































































































































































































































TRANGMISSION OF MOTOR POWER TO DRIVING WHEELS. 287 

lising gradients ot 6~ to 8°. When the motorcycle is running at 
the regular speed, not a supplemental pinion turns. 

In the Panhard and Levassor cars (Figs. 441 and 442, pp. 450 and 
451) the motor shaft, running horizontally in the median plane of the 
car, is connected by a friction coupling normally in gear with the chief 
shaft furnished with four pinions. The four toothed wheels which 
gear with these pinions (by the gliding of a coupling box) are 
fixed on a shaft under the main shaft, the shaft terminating in a 
bevel pinion Avith Avliicli one or the other of the tAvo pinions 'on 



Figs. 260 and 261. —Section and End View of Gaillardet Transmission Gear. 


the differential can be throAvn into gear for advance and retrograde 
movement of the car; by separating the pinions the car is 
stopped. The friction coupling then is not employed normally for 
this last object, but is used to break communication betAveen the 
motor and the transmission gear Avhen the car has to be stopped 
abruptly; its particular purpose is to assure smooth starting and 
passing from one rate of speed to another. The differential shaft 
carries the chain Avheels which work the driving Avheels. 

The toothed gears of the Peugeot, Laundry-Beyroux, Gautier- 
Welirle cars are described Avith the cars on pp. 454, 468, and 470 
respectively; this applies also to the toothed transmissions Avith Avheels 
in gear employed on the David and Brouliot cars (see pp. 473 and 479). 

In Gaillardet cars of the Societe Frangaise d’Automobiles the 
toothed Avheels form an integral part of the differential box. They 
are geared with the pinions of the main shaft by means of clutch 

































































































288 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


couplings, moved by cams on a special shaft intended to cut oft 
the supply of carburetted mixture to the cylinder so as to lessen 
the speed of the motor when changing from one speed to another. 
In the Gaillardet transmission system (Figs. 259 to 261) forward motion 
is produced by a special differential independent of the ordinary 
one and upon which the brake is placed to set it working at the 
required moment. It makes it possible for the car to move 
backwards at full speed and also to change forward to retrograde 
motion very rapidly without altering the speed. The motion oi 



throwing into gear is transmitted to the shaft of the intermediary 
speed pinion by an elastic driver with spring washers ; this 
assures smooth driving. The motion of the differential shaft is 
transmitted to the wheels by a shaft having a universal joint 
similar to the de Dion-Bouton device, but acting directly on the 
journals forming one with the wheels and having one of its 
assemblages slightly modified. In Figs. 259 to 261, A is the motor- 
shaft ; B, gear-case ; C, clutch ; D, clutch-shaft; if, driving-pinion ; F , 
elastic driver; G, differential of change-speed gear; H H\ conical 
pinions of change-speed gear ; I, clutch for forward motion; J, inter¬ 
mediary shaft; K, L, M, X, speed-changing pinions on intermediary 
shaft; K l , L l , M 1 , X 1 , speed-changing wheels on differential; 0, 
differential ; P, differential-shaft ; P 1 , shaft with universal joint 
actuating the wheels ; Q, cross of elastic driver; P, wheel commanding 
the intermediary shaft; S, spring washers of driving-gear; T, forks of 
speed-gear ; U, cam ; V, cam-shaft; X, cam-springs ; Y, spring-sockets. 






































































TRANSMISSION OF MOTOR : POWER TO DRIVING WHEELS. 289 


The Montauban-Marchandier block transmission devices are of a 
form that facilitates mounting of the car. The three-speed block- 
transmission gear (Fig. 262) has inside an aluminium case five pairs 
of toothed wheels, which give three speeds and retrograde motion. 
The shaft A, united to the motor by a sleeve, has four toothed wheels, 
C, D, E, F, gearing with four wheels, G, H, I, J, loose on shaft B, 
which is parallel with A; B also has two tenon sleeves, N, which 
move laterally under the action of forks worked by a curve traced on 



Fia\ 263.— Montauban-Marchandier Four-speed Block Transmission Gear. 

O 


a roll, M, which in one revolution causes alternate displacement of the 
forks, and consequently of the tenon sleeves. The tenon sleeve that is 
pushed to the right or left comes into contact with the sockets of the 
wheel towards which it is pushed, and thus renders it interdependent 
with the shaft B at the speed corresponding to the relation of the 
wheels of the couple thus engaged, the other wheels turning loose on 
shaft B. For retrograde motion the wheel F gears with an inter¬ 
mediary pinion L, keyed on the hub of a second pinion K, which is 
geared with wheel J, these two pinions reversing direction of rotation 
of wheel J. The shaft of roll M is prolonged to the right and left 
according to the installation, and carries a pinion with which gears 
T 
























































































































































290 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


either a toothed sector or a rack worked by the driver by aid of a 
hand lever. The enclosed gear works in an oil bath. 

The Montauban and Marcliandier four-speed gear (Fig. 263) has 
an aluminium case containing three shafts: the first one A is a 
prolongation of the motor shaft, and the second shaft B is parallel 
to the axle of the driving wheels, and is furnished with two loose bevel 
wheels C D moved by a third wheel E, forming one with the shaft 
A. These three wheels turn as long as the friction clutch is tightened. 
Between the two wheels C D, furnished with sockets, is a sliding 
sleeve which has tenons running along shaft B, and according as 
these tenons enter the wheel to the right or the left forward or 



backward motion is obtained. On each side of the bevel wheels C D 
and on the same shaft B, the keyed spur wheels F, G, H, I, gear 
respectively with J, K, L, M, and give four speeds. Between each 
couple of wheels J K, and L M, mounted loose on the differential case 
which covers shaft P, and entrained by them, is a sleeve pushed to 
the right or to the left; on the wheels are corresponding sockets. 
The lower shaft P is in two parts, and constitutes the differential N, 
which is enclosed, automatically and copiously lubricated, and protected 
against dust. Each part of this shaft P is prolonged on either side of 
the block (passing through compressed leather boxes retaining the 
oil), and has a sprocket wheel at its extremity, or in some cases an 
ordinary toothed wheel, which definitely transmits motion to the rear 
driving wheels. Each tenon sleeve is entrained by a fork worked by 
a special curve fixed on cylinder 0, on which are three curves causing 
successive gearing and ungearing of each couple of wheels. Less 









































































TRANSMISSION OF MOTOR POWER TO DRIVING WHEELS. 291 


than one revolution suffices to pass from stoppage to the greatest 
speed, then stop and run backwards. The driver works the cylinder 



by aid of a rack and pinion and hand lever or other simple means. 
All the gear, shafts, etc., run in oil. 

T 2 



































































































































292 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


The Pretot fore-carriage (Figs. 264 and 265) introduces quite a 
different system from ordinary toothed gear transmissions, a is a 
motor shaft, or, more rarely, a secondary shaft connected with the 
motor shaft by toothed gearing or belt, giving a first reduction of 
speed which, moreover, is constant. Wheel A is keyed upon it, and 
it toothed it imparts the motor shaft motion to shaft a, which in that 
case is secondary. Each of the four wheel naves receive an axle b 
parallel with the shaft a and interdependent with a planetary pinion 
B gearing with the toothed nave c, loose on the central axle. This 
nave forms one with a pinion carrying the endless chain which 
imparts motion of crown wheel A to the differential. For this latter 
purpose a set of pinions is keyed on each axle b, all cast on 1, 2, 3, 4 
respectively gearing with loose wheels on shaft a; though these last 
can be in turn immobilised by bands forming brakes around discs D, 
which form one with the wheels. Four cams E are each placed 
opposite discs I) and fixed on a lateral shaft which can be turned by 
means of a toothed pinion and rack. These cams tighten the brakes 
by aid of the device shown to the left of Fig. 264. When one of the 
wheels is thus fixed, while wheel A turns and drives axle b, the pinions 
geared with this wheel also will turn and cause rotation of pinions B, 
nave c, and the endless chain pinion. Suppose that gear 3 is en¬ 
gaged ; as represented by Fig. 264, its wheel is larger than nave c and 
its pinions are smaller than pinions D ; when wheel A turns in direc¬ 
tion of the arrow (Fig. 264) (forward motion) the nave c will be driven 
in the same direction with a speed proportional to the difference of 
the number of teeth of the wheels on the same axles. The same 
result is obtained when gear 4 is brought into action, the car then 
running foiwaid, but with greater speed than before. In gear 2, the 
wheel and pinion of which are of the same diameter as C and B 
respectively, there is no difference between the number of teeth of the 
wheels on the same axles ; nave c remains motionless and the car is 
stopped. Finally, when wheel 1 is geared, its diameter being less 
than that of c, wheel A continues to rotate in the direction of the 
arrow, whilst the nave c is driven in the opposite direction ; then the 
cai moves backwaids. Mere displacement of the rack, which causes 
rotation of the shaft of cams E, thus gives changes of speed, stoppage, 
and reversing of motion. 


Of. tlie Ariel two-speed gear for tricycles and quads, Fig. 266 is an 
elevation, Fig. 267 a section, and Fig. 268 a view of the lever for 


TRANSMISSION OF MOTOR POWER TO DRIVING WHEELS. 293 


changing gear. A is the motor shaft, a square portion of which carries 
a clutch sleeve, B. Two pinions, C and D, revolve freely on the shaft, 
or either can be held at will by the sleeve B, by means of jaw clutches. 



Parallel with the motor shaft A is a counter shaft E, carrying pinions 
F and G, both keyed to the same sleeve, which revolves freely on the 
counter shaft, the two pinions F and G being always in mesh with 
pinions C and D on shaft A, the pinion C driving a large spur wheel 
on the axle of the tricycle or quadricycle. It will be seen when the 



























































































































































































































































294 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


sleeve B holds pinion C the motor is driving direct on to the large 
spur wheel on back axle; this, being the largest pinion, therefore 
gives the high speed. By connecting pinion D to the motor shaft A 
by means of sleeve B pinion C revolves freely on shaft A, but is 
driven by D, through F and G, thus giving the slow speed. When 
sleeve B is midway between the pinions C and D the motor itself is 
disconnected, so that the machine can run down hill by the force of 
gravity alone, and will leave the motor free. All the pinions being 
constantly in mesh, it is an easy matter to change the gear, pinions 
C and D running only at a slight variation of speed. In Fig. 268 is 
shown the lever, J, for changing gear, which is fitted to left front of 
top tube on the cycle frame. In its upright position, as shown, the 
motor is out of gear. Moving the lever J to the front notch engages 
the high gear, and the reverse movement the low gear. The lever J 
moves the rod K (shown in Fig. 266 and continued in Fig. 268), which 
in its turn shifts the bell crank L, working on a stud on the lower 
central frame tube. L transmits the movement to M, which in its 
turn shifts the arm pillar N in the socket 0. The short striker at 
the base of N moves the clutched sleeve B to right or left as required. 

In the Darracq transmission gear (Fig. 269, p. 293), a pedal which 
moves a fork furnished with two rollers operates a leather-covered cone 
friction-clutch, which drives the chief transmission shaft carrying three 
unequal keyed pinions; these gear with movable pinions on the square 
section secondary shaft. Changes of speed are given by a device, 
called the “ train,” governed by a little fork ; this train is in a single 
piece, cut from a solid steel bar. The speed-gear case contains seven 
toothed wheels, six of which gear in pairs to give three forward 
speeds; the seventh is loose and serves to reverse the direction of 
rotation of the secondary shaft and give backward motion of the car. 
These gear wheels on their working surfaces have a bevel which 
facilitates reciprocal engaging. 

Belt systems of transmission as used on Benz cars are cheap and 
durable. In the Roger type, as built by the Anglo-French Company, 
there are two large pulleys of different diameters on the crank shaft, 
and on the intermediary shaft are two couples of pulleys, one fixed 
and the other loose, the combined diameter of which is equal to that 
of one of the pulleys on the crank shaft; there are then two speeds 
Another set of pulleys with a crossed belt gives backward motion. 
There are two pinions on the intermediary shaft, which, by means of 


TRANSMISSION OF MOTOR POWER TO DRIVING WHEELS. 295 


chains, drive the motor axle carrying the differential, the driving 
wheels being keyed on the two parts. This system of transmission is 
employed by the Delaliaye, Audebert-Lavirotte, and many other firms. 

Some of the Buchet cars have a single belt transmission with 
extensible pulleys (see Fig. 270). These pulleys are formed sectors, 
called shoes or dogs, which on the one hand glide along grooves 
running' according to the radii of a fixed disc, and on the other are 

O O 7 



Fig 270 .—Buchet Transmission Gear. 


more or less raised by a cone with a variable angle at top. Fig. 270 
represents the left pulley shut as much as possible between the 
corresponding cones and disc ; the pulley to the right is open. For 
throwing into gear, the diameter of the left pulley must be regulated 
to stretch the belt. For this the handle moving an interior shaft 
must be turned around the small toothed sector shown at top of Fig. 
270. This vertical shaft causes rotation of the toothed pinion keyed 
to its lower extremity, and by it a toothed sector on a horizontal 
shaft: a pinion on the latter engages with a transversal rack, forming 
one with a sleeve which itself is interdependent with the cone on the 
left-hand pulley. This sleeve is keyed to its axle, and in gliding 









2V6 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


along it makes the cone glide also, the cone raising the dogs until the 
belt is stretched. As soon as an engagement is obtained, the handle 
ot the small sector is released at the corresponding notch, and the 
handle ol the large sector is moved to cause simultaneous motion of 
the cones ol the two extensible pulleys, so that when the diameter of 
one increases the oilier decreases sufficiently to make the belt taut. 
For reversing motion, either two toothed pinions are used, the one or 



the other driving the motor shaft as in the Panhard cars (indepen¬ 
dently of extensible pulleys), or satellite pinions are inside a drum 
forming one with the first disc and around which a brake plate is 
applied to make the shaft turn in the opposite direction. The 
system is ingenious, but costly. 

Of mixed systems with toothed gears and belts, the Bollee 
voiturette furnishes an example. The driving shaft has three 
pinions, the intermediary shaft three permanently fixed toothed 
wheels, and on a square journal a drum which, without being 
entrained, allows this shaft to glide on itself, and is united by a belt 














































































































































TRANSMISSION OF MOTOR POWER TO DRIVING WHEELS. 297 

to the pulley, forming one with the only driving wheel of the car. 
By gradually moving this wheel away from the front wheels the belt 
becomes taut and gearing takes place gradually. By making the 
intermediary shaft glide on itself, the pair of wheels are engaged 



which give the requisite speed, drum and pulley being left in the 
same plane. These movements are obtained by aid of a single lever 
formed by a cylindric case, the rocking of which in a vertical plane 
causes advance or recoil of the driving wheel mounted on the frame; 
inside the frame an axle turns, causing, by means of a rack and 
pinion, the intermediary shaft to glide on itself. Disengagement 















































































































































































































































































































298 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


must be operated whenever speed has to be changed, and to change 
from slow to full speed average speed has to be passed through. 
This engaging by displacement of the motor shaft is somewhat rare, 
though it is found in the Morris vehicle, which also has a mixed 
system of transmission by belts and toothed gear. 

In de Dietrich cars the driving shaft placed in front transmits its 
motion to an intermediary shaft at the rear by aid of a long india- 
rubber belt, which engages and disengages the motor with the rest of 



the transmission gear. The changes of speed and backward motion 
are obtained by toothed gear connecting the intermediary shaft with 
the differential shaft, the latter driving the wheels by a chainless 
system. The de Dietrich system is shown by Fig. 271. 

In Diligeon cars speed is varied by aid of a belt which is displaced 
along two cone pulleys. The intermediary and differential shafts are 
united by toothed wheels. 

In Leo cars, Fig. 272, the motor Z drives by means of a pulley, p l , 
and a belt; the pulley p, mounted on the differential shaft, is shown 
more clearly by Fig. 273. The pulley belt has a roller stretcher U at 
the end of a lever, and normally pressed by a spring against the belt 
for throwing into gear ; to disengage, pressure is applied to pedal V 

































































































































































TRANSMISSION OF MOTOR POWER TO DRIVING WHEELS. 299 

(Fig. 2/2), which acts on the lever by a chain. The pedal can be 
iixed with a bolt when needed in the position for disengaging. The 
difteiential shaft a (Fig. 2/3) is driven by pulley p ; the pinion c gears 
with wheel c mounted on axle b, and transmits the pulley motion to 
axle b. Socket/ prolongs the differential box, and upon it is mounted 




Figs. 275 and 276. —Lepape Plate Transmission. Figs. 277 and 278. —Lepape 

Pulley Transmission . 


pinion g, loosely gearing with wheel h. Socket i, also forming one 
with the differential box, has upon it the pinion j, gearing with k ; also 
it has pinion l, united by an endless chain to m, all these being mounted 
loose. For forward motion at various speeds, by aid of one or the 
other of the sleeves n n, pinions e, g, or j can be made interdependent 
with / or i —that is, with the differential box. For backward motion, 
by aid of the left-hand sleeve n, pinion l is made interdependent 
with i ; then the chain of m l drives the differential. 



























































































































300 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


The Webb system is shown by Fig. 274. The shaft from motor A 
carries a large drum V, along which the belt glides, the illustration 
representing the belt on pulley F of the intermediary shaft in the 
position corresponding to disengagement. The belt can be brought on 
to any one of the pulleys which are interdependent with the toothed 
wheels; these constantly gear with others on the differential shaft, 
each giving a special speed—Gg full, Mm average, and Pp slow. The 
last pulley, R, gives backward motion by interposition of pinion S, 
which, constantly gearing with a pinion forming one with the nave 
of pulley R, is made to gear with a wheel keyed on the differential 
shaft. B and C, Fig. 274, are brake drum and differential respectively. 

Friction plate transmission systems are employed on Tenting and 
Lepape cars. The crank shaft is furnished with a fly-wheel formed 



Fig. 279. —IilNGELMANN TRANSMISSION GrEAll. 

like a friction cone, driving two conical wheels placed in a line with 
the axis of the fly-wheel. Between these two wheels moves a large 
disc forming a friction plate constantly in contact with them; its 
shaft carries a pinion working by a chain, the differential being placed 
on the axle of the driving wheels. By moving the disc to right or 
left of the centre of the pinion, more or less far from it, backward and 
forward motion are obtained at different rates of speed. Similar 
transmission gear is employed in the American cars made by Bird. 

In his first cars Lepape employed the device shown by Figs. 275 
and 276. The horizontal fly-wheel A acted as friction plate for the 
smooth roller B which glided along shaft C to give the backward or 
forward movements and stoppage. The shaft C, supported by two 
ball and socket bearings, had at each end a pinion D, gearing with a 
toothed wheel E fixed on the spokes of each driving wheel. To 
assure constant gearing of the pinions and toothed wheel, the ball 
and socket bearings were mounted on the ends of arms which could 
rock around the axle F ; by means of levers G, roller B could be 




















TRANSMISSION OF MOTOR POWER TO DRIVING WHEELS. 301 


pressed against or removed from plate A. Once The roller B was 
brought into contact with plate A the pinions D tended to rise in the 
toothed wheel, thus increasing pressure of the roller against the plate 
and obtaining a good transmission of motion. 

Bepape s new arrangement is somewhat different from the former. 
A stepped pulley cone is fixed on the intermediary shaft I (Fig. 277), 
which is driven by the motor through grooved pulleys and an endless 
catgut cord. This cone drives, by a belt, another cone placed parallel 
to the first, as usual. The train of levers G H brings the belt on to 
the different steps of the cone and maintains it there. Shaft A of 



the second cone has at one end a lever ending in pinion P (Fig. 
278), gearing with toothed wheel R, forming one with the car wheels. 
This shaft is, as in the previous device, mounted on two hearings 
moving around the axle so that its displacements will leave the 
pinion in gear with the toothed wheel. Motion of shaft A, in the 
direction of the arrow in Fig. 278, stretches the belt and throws the 
motor into gear with the transmission. The other end of this shaft 
carries a lever and a roller covered with leather, which drives by fric¬ 
tion a ring whose diameter is equal to that of the toothed wheel, and 
which communicates its movement to the second car wheel, allowing 

o 

it to glide with regard to it without the aid of a differential. 

Ringelmann estimates that the very ordinary results obtained by 
the friction plate systems is due to the pressure exerted on the roller 
being constant, whereas it ought to increase as it approaches the 
centre of the roller. His device to prevent this inconvenience is 








































































302 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


shown by Fig. 279, in which A and B are two friction plates given 
motion by the toothed gear D and D 1 , ot identical but inverse speeds, 
A B impart motion to roller C. The inner surfaces of the plates are flat 
instead of conical, and their inclination is combined with the power of 
the springs E so that the pressure between the roller 0 and the plates 
varies automatically, according to the required proportion, when the 
roller passes from the centre, where pressure should be maximum to 
the circumference, where it should be smallest. 

The Ellis and Steward system is shown by Figs. 280 and 281. 
The crank shaft drives the differential shaft by pinions and chains. 
Lodged in the cup C fixed to the frame at the end of the motor shaft 
the crank shaft A, upon which is mounted the fixed pinion a; a 
hinged lever L moves longitudinally the female disc D, with axles d 
around which rotate pinions b placed on each side of a, with which 
they gear. The male disc M is furnished inside with teeth, which 
engage pinions b and carry laterally pinion m, around which the 
chain of the differential passes. By bringing lever L into the position 
shown in Fig. 280 the rim of disc D is pressed against cup C, which 
makes it motionless ; pinion a, by aid of pinions b, communicates 
motion to disc M and its chain pinion m in the opposite direction to 
A. This is backward motion, the speed being three times less than 
that of the motor shaft. When lever L is restored to the position 
shown in Fig. 281, disc D is released in its cup C and becomes inter¬ 
dependent with disc M, the pinions b remaining at rest, and A 
entrains M in the same direction as itself and with its rotary speed. 
This is full speed forward motion, which can be decreased by 
diminishing pressure of D against M. To stop the car, lever L is 
worked so as to bring disc D between C and M without touching 
them. This system, simple enough and not cumbersome, gives 
progressive engagement satisfactorily. 

The Lufbury transmission gear may be noted. The crank shaft 
transmits motion to a transversal intermediary shaft by aid of two 
cones with stepped pulleys, a belt, and stretcher. The toothed device 
shown by Fig. 282 is inside the cone of the intermediary shaft. A is 
the hollow intermediary through which the differential shaft O 
passes, P is a cast iron or aluminium pulley cone, loose on A and 
carrying inside two rims, E, F, one of them toothed exteriorly and the 
other interiorly. B is a socket mounted on a long key to glide along 
A and having two arms, each of which has a movable axle forming 




TRANSMISSION OF MOTOR POWER TO DRIVING- WHEELS. 303 


one with the two pinions D, D 1 , which can gear respectively with the 
rim F and the wheel cast on at the end of the coupling sleeve H, 
rigidly connected to the male cone 


of a coupling; this sleeve can turn 
on its bearing, and is surrounded 
by a band brake f, which can make 
it motionless. Normally a spiral 
spring coiled around the central 
shaft keeps the hollow cone I en¬ 
gaged ; this forms one with the 
differential box keyed on shaft A. 
Collar b\ however, turning on balls, 
renders it possible to make the 
pieces B, H, M glide to the left and 
break the coupling by aid of a 
forked lever. In the position illus¬ 
trated the coupling is engaged and 
brake f of the sleeve H is loosened ; 
as the pinions cannot move, the 
motion of the pulley P is trans¬ 
mitted integrally to the shaft A as 
though the pulley were keyed on 
the shaft. The car runs forward at 
that of the three speeds which 
corresponds to the position of the 
belt on the cones. If the cone M, 
with its interdependent pieces, is 
displaced slightly to the left and 
brake / tightened, the latter im¬ 
mobilises the sleeve H and conse¬ 
quently the toothed rim F. Pulley 
P in turning entrains D and conse¬ 
quently D 1 ; as these cannot make 
the wheel of sleeve H turn, they 
roll on the latter, entraining socket 
B, which in turn imparts motion 



to shaft A, on which it is keyed; but it entrains it at only half 
the speed of that of P (owing to the number of teeth given to the 
engaged gear). The car runs at a speed equal to half that which 













































































304 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


corresponds to the position of the belt on the cones. If the set 
M, H, B is displaced to the left, D 1 always remains in gear with wheel 
of the sleeve H, but D leaves F, thus causing disengagement. 
Finally, if D is made to engage with E, the brake being continually 
tightened, P entrains shaft A by means of sleeve B at a speed half as 



Fios. 283 and 284. —Jeantaud Motor Fore-Carriage Transmission Gear. 

O 


great, but in the opposite direction—that is, backward motion is 
obtained. The sleeve and brake are moved by aid of a socket through 
which a handle lever passes. Normally the stretcher and belt are 
employed, the inner gearing being brought into play only for 
backward motion and ascending certain gradients. The apparatus 
has the advantage of giving a greater range of speed than that 
generally employed; it is light and not cumbersome, but its con¬ 
struction is complicated. For a power of 4 to 6 h.p. it weighs only 50 
kg. (110 lb.), and it is hoped to reduce it to 35 kg. (77 lb.). 












































































































































































TRANSMISSION OF MOTOR POWER TO DRIVING WHEELS. 305 


In the system employed by the Thorny croft ' Steam Wagon 
Company the motor transmits motion to the chain pinions by a belt 
which is supported on the motor shaft by a single pulley and on the 
pinion shaft by twin pulleys, each transmitting motion to one of the 
pinions. The belt is equally across the two pulleys when the car 
is running in a straight line, and when the car turns the belt is more 
on the outer pulley.. The belt is kept in position by a fork worked by 
a screw moving in a nut, which is fixed in the direction of the dis¬ 
placement of the screw; the nut can turn on itself when the rod and 



Fig. 285. —I)or£ Steering Motor Fore-carriage. 


lever which draw it are displaced in the turnings of the road. This 
transmission gear can work without any differential, as is the case 
with some others already described. 

It is a question whether or not it is desirable to dispense with the 
sensitive differential, which often acts when not required, as, for 
instance, when one only of the wheels meets with an obstacle. Then 
one wheel stops or does not run so quickly as the second and tugs 
the chain in a destructive manner, leaving the other chain to work 
alone. However, the majority of constructors consider the differential 
to be necessary. Auble obtains progression of speed of the car by 
rotating a nut in which a peculiarly shaped endless chain passes. 

In electric cars, backward motion and changes of speed can easily 
be obtained by aid of the electric motor, and consequently mechanical 

u 




























































































306 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


speed-changing gear is not much used. The system is simple, 
and all the transmissions employ toothed gear. 

In most of the Jeantaud cars 
which took part in the cab trials 
of June, 1899, the motor drives 
the differential shaft by toothed 
gear, the differential driving the 
rear wheels by chains. In the 
three-quarter coupe, where the 
front wheels are both driving and 
steering (see Figs. 283 and 284), 
the shaft of the armature governs 
the differential shaft by cog-wheels 
(there is no magnetic coupling on 
the left of the secondary coil); 
each of the two parts of the differ¬ 
ential shaft has at its end a bevel 
pinion gearing with a pinion 
whose vertical axle is the wheel 
pivot. This other gears in turn 
with a pinion on the axle of the 
driving wheel. Thus the wheels 
can turn any way without ceasing 
to receive motion. 

Krieger cars have a driving 
and a steering fore-carriage with 
two pivots, each acting as a sup¬ 
port for an electric motor directly 
driving a toothed wheel mounted 
on the wheel spokes. The system 
is described in the chapter de¬ 
voted to electric vehicles. 

Fore cars have a fore-carriage 
used both for driving and steering 
(see Fig. 285). The dynamo is on 
the seat at the driver’s feet. To 
transmit its motion to the wheels, 
in spite of the bending of the springs (which causes the distance from 
axle to motor to vary), a motor drives a hollow vertical cylinder 
















































































































































































TRANSMISSION OF MOTOIi POWER TO DRIVING WHEELS. 307 


(forming the pivot on which all the fore-carriage turns), inside which a 
rod in two parts can ascend and descend, the two parts being united by 



Patin Clutch 


a double universal joint. The lower part carries a bevel pinion which 
entrains the wheel of the differential; the wheels are keyed on the two 
parts of the axle. A key forces the rod to follow the motion of the 



Figs. 288 and 289. —End Eleawtion and Section of Milde-Montos Transmission 

Gear. 


rotating cylinder. This fore-carriage can be employed with a petrol 
motor also. \ 

In the Columbia cars of the Pope Manufacturing Company, of 
u 2 


















































































































































THE AUTOMOBILE. 


Hartford, Connecticut, the motor is supported directly by the rear 
axle and its shaft is concentric with that of the wheels, which it 
drives by toothed and differential gear: thus there is no chain or 
intermediary shaft. 

V 

Patin cars employ a transmission system shown bv Figs. 286 and 
287. The motor a is fixed direct on the axle b, curved in at the 
centre and widening out to a given point in an oval shape to allow 
the differential and its wheel to pass to the axis of its horizontal 
secondary coil; the pulley q is covered with leather. Under the 
action ot lever e, and in the plane of pulley q, moves vertically the 
triangular sector n, n\ carrying pulleys s, s l , of unequal diameter, but 
both larger than that of the pulley q. When one or other of the 
pulleys s, s l is brought into contact with the latter it begins to move, 
driving its shaft and with it a toothed pinion, which forms one 
with it and constantly gears with the toothed wheel l of the dif¬ 
ferential. The pinion of the latter drives the two parts c, c, which 
pass inside the axle journals without any friction. By aid of the 
extreme nuts the clutch couplings p entrain the hubs p 1 of the wheels. 
It suffices to change the pulley in contact with q to make a change 
from full speed without fear of shocks and snapping of teeth as with 
toothed n eaim 0 . Disen^fl^in^ is operated by breaking all contact 
between the pulleys q on the one hand and s, s 1 on the other: for 
enslavement contact is restored. 

O O 

The Milde-Mondos transmission has an electric differential in place 
of the mechanical differential (see Figs. 288 and 289): a and a 1 are 
the two secondary circuit rings of the motor, each comprising a 
special winding; one, a, is keyed on the solid shaft b ; the other, a\ 
in the hollow shaft 6 1 , concentric with the first, of which, moreover, 
it only surrounds part of the length. At the end of each shaft a 
pinion gears with the wheels c and c\ which, by means of a flexible 
transmission or other device, in turn drive pinions cl. cl 1 , which o* e ar 
with the toothed wheels r, r\ fixed on the car driving wheels. Thus 
these wheels can displace themselves as regards each other because 
the secondary coils can acquire different rates of speed, the motor 
action becoming more powerful in the ring corresponding to the wheel 
receiving the maximum strain. 


309 


CHAPTER XII. 

AXLES AND STEERING GEAR OF AUTOMOBILES. 

Automobile driving axles and steering axles are distinguished 
between as follows: they are driving when the two driving wheels 
are keyed on them or on their two parts united by the differential, 
or when they are loose with the chain wheels; whilst steering 
axles carry the steerage wheels. In a general way the rear axle 
is driving and the fore axle steering. The other position, however, 
is to be found in the TTeidkneclit omnibus, the car of the Compagnie 
Generate des Automobiles, and the Moriss voiturette, and the steering 
axle in the rear in fact gives smoothness and stability when rounding 
sharp curves, but it is said to cause difficulty in starting, the car 
being stopped sometimes by contact with a curb-stone. Some axles 
are both driving and steering, in which case they are always placed 
at the front. 

Tripping, sometimes caused by having the-steering driving axle in 
front, is a great inconvenience, for it may extend to a head-to-tail 
motion: according to Forestier it occurs when the wheels of the 
fore-carriage meet with a resistance which slackens motion and the 
rear wheels are on any part of a road where friction is too slight 
to prevent side-slipping. To prevent this inconvenience, Forestier 
recommends the loading of the fore-carriage so that the kinetic 
energy of the wheels can overcome the resistance thev meet with 
without decreasing the speed much more than that ot the rear 
wheels. If the fore-carriage is loaded the wheels must he increased 
in diameter, and it is a question whether they should be left steering 
in such a case. However, it is not always resistance as above that 
makes the car swing round, for it may happen that one o± the 
road wheels does not travel over the same distance as the other, 
the car then turning to the side on which the wheel runs the shorter 
distance. This happens particularly when one wheel is on a part 
of the road, such as a tram rail, pavement or slippery asphalt, 
where adherence is small; or tripping may be caused by the brakes 


310 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


of the two wheels working unequally. In such circumstances 
swinging round cannot be prevented by increasing the load on the 
fore-carriage; then the remedy is to make the wheels turn together 
by stopping the action of the differential. 

Whether the fore axle be steering or driving it is desirable for 
it to have the same width (really length) as the rear axle, so that 
the driver may be able to judge whether the available space is 
sufficient for the vehicle; and the car gains in stability. Great 
solidity and strength are required for automobile axles, as they 
have to support both the body and the mechanism, a greater general 
weight than that of a horse-drawn car, and they are subjected to 
jolts which are aggravated by the more or less great speed. Con¬ 
sequently the axles must be made of the best metal. Steel, which 
otherwise is desirable owing to the facility of tempering of the 
journals, cannot be used, because it tends to become brittle under 
the influence of vibration; in any case only soft steel can be 
tolerated. Iron is almost exclusively employed, and it is selected 
soft and fibrous, giving an elongation as far as possible of 26 
to 27 per cent, under a rupture strain of from 35 kg. to 36 kg. 
per mm. 2 (22'21 tons to 22'84 tons per square inch) of section. 

The axle may be straight or cranked, with or without shoes 
or washers welded or hammered into the metal. Straight axles 
without shoes are made in one piece, rolled or forged with the 
stamp hammer. On the contrary, straight axles with shoes are 
generally made in two parts which are welded together. The 
shoes may be welded on, but heavy axles with shoes should be 
made in one piece. Crank axles without shoes usually are centered 
in drawing; a sufficient boss must be left so that after bending 
the crank will have the same section as the rest of the axle. 
Crank axles with shoes must be forged in one piece ; this is desirable 
for washers also, but welding can be adopted providing it is well 
done. The journals are stamped as near as possible to their 
finished dimensions to avoid much subsequent shaping, they 
are case-hardened for a thickness of at least 0-2 mm. (-007 in.) 
and then the journal fillets are annealed to remove brittleness. 
Finally, the journals are adjusted so that in use they will 
neither wear away nor be deformed much. In horse-drawn 
vehicles the journals are inclined downwards, so that in spite 
of the dish of the wheel the spokes will be perpendicular 


AXLES AND STEELING GEAR OF AUTOMOBILES . 


311 


to the ground and thus loaded vertically. In automobiles the 
motor wheels form one with the toothed wheels, which turn in 
the vertical planes of the endless chains which drive them, and 
the journal axles cannot be “set” much except certain rarely 
employed devices are adopted. But this does not apply to the 
journals of steering axles, which sometimes, however, are not “ set,” 
nor are the Avdieels they carry perceptibly dished. 

The axle boxes contain balls or rollers and grease or oil. Grease 
boxes are employed only for heavy vehicles. Patent oil axle 
boxes are made in about the same shape a,s that adopted by the 
inventor, J. Collinge, in 1787. Lemoine, however, suppresses the 
groove in the top part of the journal, this allowing of better 
grinding. They are made of bronze or more often of forged iron case- 
hardened, but never of cast iron, which would be too brittle. Bronze 
gives more friction and removes all risk of skidding, but it wears 
away more quickly than iron, and this wear causes a noise when 
the wheel turns. The rings and nuts generally are made of 
bronze for the sake of cheapness. For heavy vehicles one iron 
nut with notches perhaps is better. The half patent axle without 
ring or nuts, the box being joined to the Avheel by Avashers and 
bolts, gives greater security, because the nut does not become loose, 
and if the journal breaks the Avheel is retained, but it cannot 
easily be removed. These axles must be kept perfectly clean and 
lubricated Avith slieep’s-foot oil, or ox-foot oil, or cheap mineral oils. 
Great inconveniences are caused by Avant of oil or the detachment 
of a fragment of broken metal from the box, the Avheels skidding, 
the journal Avedging, and even the journal adhering to the box 
through overheating. Normally a Avell lubricated Avheel should run 
from 800 km. to 1,000 km. (roughly from 500 to 620 miles) Avithout 
requiring any attention. Ball bearings, according to G. Richard, 
reduce the journal friction by 90 per cent. Balls 10 mm. (0*39 in.) 
in diameter, Avell made of hard steel or soft Bessemer steel Avith 
OT per cent, of carbon, Avell tempered and polished, have a 
crushing resistance of 26 kg. per mm. 2 (16*5 tons per square inch), 
and can support, Avithout losing their roundness, betAveen plane 
surfaces of Bessemer hardened steel as much as 1,100 kg. (2,220 lb.) 
per ball. This resistance can be increased by having several roAvs 
of balls or cylindric rollers. Forestier says that the co-efficient 
of friction of the journals may be taken as equal to 10 kg. (22 lb.) 


312 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


per tonne with patent axle boxes, 5 kg. (11 lb.) with ball bearings, 
and 2 5 kg. (5'5 lb.) if smaller balls are placed between those 
supporting the axle so as to prevent all gliding friction amongst 
the larger ones. In the United States comparison has been made 
of the strains needed for the traction of two similar wagons (1) with 
a roller box and (2) with a lubricating box; the proportion of (1) 
to (2) was :— 

Load of 3,300 kg. ( 6,660 lb.) . 1 to 2'90 

Do. 8,300 kg. (18,260 lb.) . 1 to 367 

Do. 10,000 kg. (22,000 lb.) ... ... 1 to 3'98 

Experiments made with an entire train on the Western Railway 
of France demonstrated that rollers give much less resistance to 



Fig. 290. —Lemoine Patent Oil Axle. 


rolling than do ordinary boxes, the resistance to starting being 
diminished by from 35 to 40 per cent. In automobiles it would 
be particularly advantageous to reduce the resistance to starting 
due chiefly to the want of oil between the journals and the 
boxes, for when lubucation is copious the co-efficient of friction 
increases as the square of the speed. Forestier suggests that the 
lubricating system much in vogue on railways be imitated in 
this—a wick deposits on the journal just enough lubricant to 
prevent wedging; this latter inconvenience is to be feared more 
with automobiles than with railway waggons. Already there jA'a 
number of ball-bearing axles. There are the Belvalette and Vermot 
axles with two rows of balls, one on each side of the journal: 
the Hannover with four rows; Simonds with eight rows; and 
Gondefer, Gros and Picard axles with ball or roller bearings, in 
a\ hich the chief balls oi lolleis are kept separate by a second ring of 
balls or rollers lodged in special grooves, this device preventing 
all gliding. But ball bearings are employed only for motor-cycles 















































AXLES AND STEERING GEAR OF AUTOMOBILES. 313 

and voiturettes. Nearly all constructors consider that the patent 
axle wears very well, and they say that the ball system is more 
expensive, not so solid, and more complicated than useful, the 
breakage of a single ball causing the journal to wedge, and mere 
wear causing bad work; the friction of the journal, they consider, 
is only a small item in the total resistance to rolling. 

Driving axles are made variously; their naves may or may not 
carry the brake pulley and the disc for the toothed wheel which 



Fig. 291. —Lemoine Patent Oil Axle with Brake Pulley. 


gears with the endless chain. Figs. 290 and 291 illustrate two 
types constructed by Lemoine. Fig. 290 is a general view of a patent 
oil driving axle, depressed and having an eye to receive the fastening 
of the connecting rod ; the illustration shows a washer beaten out of 
the metal mounted with a metal nave and hoop sleeve carrying a 
disc to fix the toothed wheel. Practically the same axle is shown 
by Fig. 291, but on this is fixed a brake pulley and toothed chain-wheel. 

Fig. 292 shows the Darracq rear driving axle, A being the 
differential shaft, B and C the left hand and right casings respect¬ 
ively, D the differential gear box, E the brake with band passed twice 
round the differential box, F the wheel driven by the pinion / on 
a shaft which has a flexible joint at H, J the spring attachment piece, 
K the naves of the back wheels, and L ball bearings. 





























































314 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


The de Dion-Bouton car driving axle is 
illustrated in part by Fig. 293, which shows 
the nave, cap, axle sleeve, T, brake drum, \ r , 
etc. This and the Darracq axle (Fig. 292) are 
types of driving axles. 

The two-pivot broken axle steerage is a 
source of danger, especially at full speed, on 
account of its want of precision. The bicycle 
mounting, which was that of the Cugnot 
trolley, would have given the simplest solu¬ 
tion ; but it would have been unsafe, as it 
would have reduced the supporting polygon 
to a triangle. The ordinary fore-carriage with 
pivot would have caused the same difficulty 
as the single steering wheel in turnings of 
90°. In an automobile the fore-carriage 

O 

gives a defect which, owing to the pole or 
shafts, is not present in horse-drawn vehicles ; 
any obstacle met 
with by a wheel 
tends to make it 
turn with great 
force around the 
pivot, and in order 
to keep the car in a straight line the great 
strain has to be counterbalanced. This could 
not be done easily by means of a lever directly 
connected with the axle ; this lever usually is 
difficult to handle, but under such circum¬ 
stances might be snatched from the driver’s 
hands. An endless screw and irreversible 
transmission might have been employed, and 
a few builders—Pouchain, Le Blant, and Dore 
—have adopted this system, which, however, 
exposes the steering parts to strains which 
might cause dislocation. The remedy is to 
immobilise the steering axle to the driving 
axle parallel to one another, and to make each 
wheel movable around a pivot quite close 





Fig. 292 .—Darracq Driving Axle. 





































































































AXLES AND STEERING GEAR OF AUTOMOBILES. 


315 


to the end of the axle. Thus in the Duryea car the prolonged axis 
of the pivot intersects the ground at the point where the wheel is in 
contact. Sometimes, instead of being completely immobilised, the 
steering axle remains free to move around a perpendicular pivot, but it 
always remains in a vertical plane parallel to that of the driving axle, 
and the supporting polygon is not altered. The two-pivot fore¬ 
carriage was invented by Lenkensperger and patented by Rudolph 
Ackermann, of London, in 1818. Originally, it exposed the wheels to 



skidding along the ground because the axle of the journals of the 
steering wheels did not converge, in turning, at a single point, and 
then the four wheels had not a common axis of rotation. The Bollee 
steam car Obeissante in 1873 had the two-pivot system with cams 
intended to make the prolongations of the journals meet in precisely 
the same point of the vertical plane of the rear axle. 

In 1878 Jeantaud invented a modification of the Ackermann 
device which enables easy turning of the car, because in horizontal 
projection the axis of the journals always meet on the prolongation (or 
at least very near it) of the rear axle axis. In Fig. 294, which shows 
the principle of the Ackermann-Jeantaud steering gear, r r are the 
horizontal projections of the steering wheels, o o being those of their 






















































































































316 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


respective pivots. By joining these two latter points with the inter¬ 
section A of the median axis of the car and the rear axle axis M, an 
isosceles triangle is formed, the sides of which are taken as the 
direction of the connecting rods 0 L, O 1 L 1 , which invariably are 
united with the journals of the two wheels. These two rods finally 
are hinged with the cross piece L L, which transmits to them in an 
interdependent manner the motions of the steering bar or, better, the 
fly wheel; when, in order to turn, wheel r is brought into the 
position r 1 so that the verticals 0 A 1 and O 1 A 1 on the wheel planes 
intersect each other in a point A 1 situated very approximately on the 
prolongation of the axis of the rear axle. The locus of the points A 1 
strictly is a curve to which line A A 1 is a tangent with which it may 
be practically confounded. The cross-piece L L 1 can he brought more 
or less close to this axle, but the nearer it is the greater will be the 
field of action of the wheels, without it being possible, owing to the 
limited amplitude of the arcs described by the connection rods, to 
make the car pivot on one of the rear wheels. The Jeantaud device 
now is employed almost exclusively, though it gives good results only 
for angles of not more than 30°. Consequently, the system is not 
perfect yet. With a view to elucidate the matter, Bourlet made a 
very interesting study which here is epitomised. With him we shall 
separate (1) the system of joining the two wheels as distinguished 
from (2) the transmission gear. 

As regards the system of joining wheels, connecting rods are the 
easiest to make and the least liable to become loose. As to whether 
it is possible with them to realise the essential condition that in turning 
no wheel skids laterally, that is, in every position of the system, the 
four wheels turn around an instantaneous axis of rotation situated in 
the vertical plane of the rear axle, theoretically it is possible but prac¬ 
tically it is not; any system giving this condition would involve too 
great a number of connection rods—there would be at least eighteen 
according to the devices hitherto proposed. But if a mathematically 
accurate solution is not practicable, something near the mark can be 
attempted, because it suffices to assure a maximum turning angle of 
40 for the car. In fact, cars with driving wheels in the rear do not 
turn when the wheels are fixed at more than 45°. Thus the fore 
wheels, under the influence of pressure, from the first tend to skid, and 
do so if the fore-carriage does not break. Bourlet ascribes this 
impossibility of turning in small radii to the defective steering gear 

O O 


AXLES AND STEERING GEAR OF AUTOMOBILES. 


317 


actually employed when fixed at great angles and to the differential 
ceasing to work. 

Connecting rod couplings are distinguished from each other by 
the shape of the polygons they form; there are (a) simple quad¬ 
rilateral, (6) double quadrilateral, and (c) concave pentagon. 

The quadrilateral coupling may be inside the axles, as for the 
Ackermann-Jeantaud device, Fig. 294, or outside the axles, as in the 
Panhard and Levassor. The Ackermann-Jeantaud device, as has been 
said, gives suitable steering only when the gear is fixed at an angle of 
30°, beyond this it is really bad ; and as a rule, in the case of interior 
quadrilaterals, any inaccuracy rapidly grows. The exterior quadri- 


<A 



lateral is preferable, because with the same frame it gives a greater 
maximum steering angle, and because whilst the jolts caused by the 
road on the steering wheels cause pressure on the rod L L, Fig. 294, 
in the interior quadrilateral they cause traction in the exterior 
quadrilateral, and this is more desirable. Bourlet endeavoured to 
find out the best possible system of hinged quadrilaterals, and his 
result can be realised only with a long narrow car, for if the car is 
short and wide the maximum steering angle is too small. Therefore 
the single quadrilateral systems must be abandoned. 

With regard to connecting rod couplings having a double quadri¬ 
lateral, by dividing the single quadrilateral into two, the width of the 
car is, as it were, decreased one half and matters improved. To 
practically obtain this the rods near the two quadrilaterals must be 
connected one with the other so as to form a sector turning around 
the middle of the steering axle. This is the arrangement in nearly 




















318 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


all the actual rod systems, particularly the Roger, Lepape, and 
Jenatzy, in which the quadrilaterals are two rectangular trapezes. 
Fig. 295 shows the Jenatzy steering gear with double quadrilateral 
(rotary axis of sector on axle). In the Benz and Bollee systems with 
double equilateral (Fig. 296) the rotary axis of the sector is not on 
the steering axle; a variable parameter is taken. In fact, there are 
more parameters than needed, and Bourlet demonstrates that an 
almost perfect connection can be formed in which the sector is 
replaced by a single rod. Following this up, Lavenir invented a 



Fig. 295. —Jenatzy Double Quadrilateral Steering Gear. Fig. 296. —Bollee 
Double Quadrilateral Steering Gear. Fig. 297. —Lavenir Concave 
Pentagon Steering Gear. 


system with concave pantagon (Fig. 297), which is indisputably the 
most accurate of all the systems hitherto invented; it is strictly 
accurate from 0 to 60°, and at 90 the error is only about 3°. 

It is fairly obvious that a cam connection can be made giving any 
required relation between the steering gear of the wheels, and, indeed, 
several devices of this kind have been invented, for instance, that of 
Sydenham and Walkinson; all have the inconvenience of very 
rapidly becoming loose. Bourlet invented a slide mechanism which 
makes the steering wheel journals converge precisely in any position 
towards the same point of the rear axle. It is based on the fact, 
geometrically demonstrated by the inventor, that if the two journals 
A 1 a and B l b, Fig. 298, are connected with two arms a a 1 and b b 1 , 
that intersect in the point M vertical to A 1 B 1 , and symmetric 
with 0 the middle of the rear axle C D with regard to fore axle A B, 




















AXLES AND STEERING GEAR OF AUTOMOBILES. 


319 


the point M describes a straight line parallel to A 1 B 1 and that 
inversely if this point M describes the straight line E F the afore¬ 
mentioned condition of convergence is fulfilled. The problem then is 
reduced to this: unite the two arms a a 1 , b b 1 by such a mechanism 
that M will describe the straight line E F. For this Bourlet furnishes 
the two arms with two slides a a 1 b b 1 (Fig. 299) in which run two 



Fig. 298. —Bourlet Steering Geail 


i 

rollers placed at the end of a rod g k which slides in two sleeves U U 1 , 
which maintain it at a constant distance h from A B (see Fig. 298). 
Point M thus describes the straight line E F, for the two triangles M A B 
and M g k remain similar and in constant proportion, which is that of 
their bases A B and g k; d is the height of the triangle M A B, that 
of triangle M g k is d - h. Owing to the similitude of the triangles 

^ = constant, and as h is constant so is d also, 

d - h g k 

The Bourlet system of steerage is effected as in Fig. 299. It 
is possible to act on rod T by any of the steering mechanism to be 
described later. This system of joining is almost as simple as 














320 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


the Ackermann jointed quadrilateral, over which it has a marked 
superiority. The jolting of the wheels in rough roads makes rod T, 
Fig. 299, work in traction as in the Panhard and Levassor steering gear ; 



» * / 

E _ M' M 

• . • 


Fig. 299 .—Bourlet Steering Gear with Slide Mechanism. 

but in addition to the theoretical superiority of strict accuracy, 
the Bourlet gear has the advantage over the last named of not 
having diverging arms A a 1 and B b 1 which necessitate inconvenient 



Fig. 300 .—Boll£e Chain Steering Gear (Old System) 


lengthening of the journals as soon as the road becomes wide 
comparatively with the width between the wheels. Davis, an 
Englishman, constructed a device differing from Bourlet’s only in the 
style of workmanship; the two arms A a 1 B b 1 instead of being 


































































321 


AXLES AND STEERING GEAR OF AUTOMOBILES. 

furnished with slides are solid and run in cylinders hinged on the 

ends of rod g k. The other letters in Fig. 299 have the same 
references as in Fke 29cS. 

O 



tig 301 .—Delahaye Chain and Ball Steering Gear, 

Chain and toothed gear connections have been abandoned 
because they quickly grow loose. The Bollee old steering gear 
(Fig. 300) had chains; the two steering wheels were each placed 
in a vertical fork like the steering wheel of a tricycle. At their top 



Fig. 302 .—Priestman and Wright Steering Gear. 

part the axes A and B of these forks had pinions connected by chains 
C and D to two elliptic interdependent eccentric pinions, E and F. 
turning around an axis, I, placed in the centre of line A B. Theoretic¬ 
ally. the choice of the shape of the pinions E and F gives exact 
v 


























THE AUTOMOBILE. 


322 

connection, but practically the variability of the tension ol the chains 
C and D gives a very refractory steerage system. The Delahaye 
gear (Fig. 301), sometimes also employed by Peugeot, is a com¬ 
bination of chains and connecting rods. With it also the flexibility 
of the chain gives considerable play, which makes this system one ol 
the least recommendable. The Priestman and Wright steering gear, 
shown by Fig. 302, is a toothed system. In this, the steering handle 
is mounted at the top end of a vertical shaft whose lower end carries 



Figs. 303 to 305. —Paxhard and Levassok Steering Gear. 

a pinion gearing with a toothed sector. The sector carries the 
vertical shaft G, upon which the double sector H is keyed eccen¬ 
trical] 5'. The two parts of this double sector gear with other eccentric 
sectors with arms cast on and hinged to connecting rods K, which are 
hinged to levers fixed to forks M of wheels N. The form and 
eccentricity of the sectors G and H are calculated to transmit to 
the wheels differential motions suitable for good steerage. 

o o 

The transmission mechanism of the wheel connection system, and 
consequently of the wheels themselves, must have the least possible 
play, be easily handled, and at the same time act promptly, and be 
flexible enough to follow the relative displacements of the body and 
fore-carriage (the driving shaft, with its lever steering bar or hand 


































AXLES AM) STEERING GEAR, OF AUTOMOBILES . 


323 

wheel, is fixed to the body, and the system of the wheel connections 
is only connected with the latter by springs). The inclined hand wheel 
at present is the most popular controlling part, the lever being 
abandoned, as it is suitable only for slow cars, such as electrically 
driven ones. 

The bell crank steering gear is the simplest, and consists of merely 
hinged rods, the arrangement of which can be much varied. As some¬ 
what frequently employed, one of the arms, as 0 L (Fig. 294, p. 317), 
is prolonged so as to form the bell tie-rod, which the controlling shaft 
works by a lever arm and a tie-rod. There is a double hinge with 
vertical and horizontal axes on each end of the tie-rod to enable the 
mechanism to follow the relative displacement of the body of the car 
and the axle. In the Panhard and Levassor adaptation the bell tie- 



rod, instead of being moved by a lever arm, is worked by a toothed 
sector; at the lower part of the fly wheel shaft a pinion or an endless 
screw gears with a toothed sector situated in a vertical plane. This 
sector has a lever arm which draws or pushes the bell crank rod a, 
Figs. 303 to 305. 

Jeantaud employs to move the tie-rod a rack which prolongs the 
same and which gears with the pinion placed at the lower part of the 
controlling shaft; the tie-rod itself is hinged in a point of the con¬ 
necting rod L L, Fig. 294, p. 317. 

With regard to chain and toothed gear transmission, the firms 
which have adopted the double quadrilateral transmission frequently 
simply employ chains. The sector E I F, Fig. 306, has a concentric 
pinion, Q, united by an endless chain, 0, with the pinion P keyed to 
the lower part of the driving shaft 0. Usually, pinion P is smaller 
than Q so as to obtain a demultiplication, which makes the steering 
gear work more smoothly, with greater sensitiveness, and more slowly. 

Irreversible steering gear is necessary. The mechanisms just 
v 2 







:J24 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


described (except the Panhard endless screw gear) have a defect 
which is very tiresome for the driver, who cannot release the steering 
gear without the car running into the side of the road. These 
systems [may have sufficed for ordinary speeds hitherto attained, 
but with those which seem likely to be adopted and already em¬ 
ployed in races the driver has not time to remedy the swerving of 



the car caused by jolts. It is prudent to arrange the mechanism so 
that the obstacles met on the road will not make the car swerve from 
the line along which it is being driven. 

Non-reversibility of the steering gear must not be absolute, 
or one of the wheels, not being able to deviate in the least, 
may be smashed against any obstacle. The endless screw gear is 
already non-reversible, owing to the motion of the screw; but the 
screw absorbs much work and does not give rapid transmission. 
Jeantaud has patented an irreversible system, and de Coninck has 
constructed a mechanism with epicycloidal gear. 










































































































































AXLES ANI) STEERING GEAR OF AUTOMOBILES. 325 

» 

lhe Brillie epicycloidal transmission gear steering, which is 
already employed in the Gobron Brillie cars, independently of 
its non-reversibility has the advantage of giving variable de- 
multiplication of the motion of the steering. With a slight 
reduction of the demultiplication the car is turned more easily, 
but handling is more fatiguing; whereas with a great reduction 
handling is easy but turning is slower. In this gear, a hand steering- 
wheel A (Figs. 307 and 308) is keyed on the top part of the 
steering axle A A 1 , which is guided in a tube, T, upon which is 



fixed a toothed pinion, K; the lower part of A A 1 has a lever arm, L, 
terminated in a socket through which passes shaft D D 1 parallel to 
A A 1 . At the top part of D D 1 is a toothed sector, S, which gears 
with pinion Iv and at its loiver part is a crank arm, M, which moves 
the steering connecting rod, mounted on the pin C, perpendicu¬ 
larly to the plane of the illustration (Fig. 307). Spring R constantly 
tends to bring the axes ACD back into the same vertical plane. If 
the hand wheel V is given a rotary motion, axis D will describe a 
circular path around A ; the toothed sector S gears with the fixed 
pinion K, and every point of it and of the pin C will describe an 
epicycloid, an epicycloid being defined as the curve described by a 
point in a circle revolving in another. According as the hand wheel is 
turned to steer to the left or right, every point of C will describe a 
curve similar to C„ C 0 or C 0 CJ "(Fig. 308). Now it results from 


















































THE AUTOMOBILE. 


326 

the geometric properties of the epicycloid that if the hand wheel crank 
\ is brought into positions equidistant, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, the 
point C will occupy corresponding positions, namely C 0 , C lf C 2 , (J 3 , C 4 , 
C-, C 6 , C 7 , C 8 , C 9 , further and further from each other. If, therefore, 
point C is connected with the steering connecting rods by aid of rod 



Q, the latter will cause the former, which in turn- acts on the wheels 
for equal displacements of the fly wheel, to make ever-increasing 
angles of deviation according as one moves away from the rectilinear 
advance ; this is clearly illustrated in Fig. 308. It results that, 
in order to deviate perceptibly from the straight line along which the 



Fig. 310. — Lemoine Steering Axle with Vertical Pin. 


car is running, the hand wheel must ho displaced considerably: an 
involuntary movement given to the steering gear cannot therefore 
cause anything but neglectable deviations. It results also that to 
turn in a curve of small radius it suffices to make the wheel rotate 
one-third or one-quarter revolution. Moreover, owing to the action 
of spring R, shown in Fig. 307, p. 324, and to the distribution 
ot torces brought into play, the handle C and consequently the hand 



























1 XLES AND STEERING GEAR OF AUTOMOBILES. 


327 


wheel Y do not tend to deviate when the wheels meet abnormal 
strains caused by stones, etc. 

The two pivot steering axles can be made in somewhat varied 
shapes; they have a chape as shown in Fig. 309, and a pin as shown 
in Figs. 310 and 311 ; the pin may he vertical or inverted with pivot 
or balls. Fig. 309 is a section of a Lernoine steering axle with chape ; 
the steering lever is forged on with the journal; there is a halt-patent 
metal oil nave for the wooden spokes. Fig. 310 is a section ot a 
Lernoine steering axle with vertical pin, double oil box, and balls; 
the centred axle has an inserted journal to decrease projection; the 



patent metal oil nave has a counter disc without hoop for wooden 
spokes. Fig. 311 is an exterior view of a Lernoine steering axle with 
inverted pin, balls and pivot, flattened shoe, centred axle, metal nave, 
the pin seat being furnished with a lever forged on for steering. The 
two-pivot axle is employed almost universally. 

It has been remarked that the pin or pivot fore-carriage also is 
used. It is adopted especially by L)ore and by the Compagnie des 
Yoitures Electromobiles. Some other systems are in use, but only by 
their inventors. For instance, Lc Blant has two fore-carriage pin 
axles to facilitate turning forwards and make it possible to turn 
backwards. Bird’s device is a pin fore-carriage with twin wheels very 
close together, the inconveniences of the large fore-carriage being 
decreased, hut to the detriment of the stability. Duchatelet’s device 
compels the driver to tighten the brake gradually before turning a 
corner, the sharper the turn the tighter being the brake. 

















328 



CHAPTER XIII. 


WHEELS AND TYRES OF AUTOMOBILES. 

The first quality requisite in the wheels of an automobile is solidity, 
or the impetus of the motor is transmitted to the carriage by their 
agency, and in sudden stoppages the strain on the wheels is greatly 
increased, and the wheels meet on the road with destructive shocks, 
which are proportioned to the kinetic energy of the car. Assuming 
that the load on the axle is only double that m a horse-drawn car 
and the speed tuple, it follows that the strength of a wheel of an 
automobile must be eighteen times greater than that of a horse- 
drawn car wheel to give the same degree of safety. But the 
requirements of safety with regard to wheels is not always fulfilled, a 
fact to which attention was called by the jury of the Liverpool 1898 
heavy vehicle trials. 

As regards the diameter, of the wheels, in carriage-building there 
is a constant rule which is to make the diameter of the wheels 
proportional to their load. The advantages of large wheels are that 
they increase the lever arm to overcome the resistance due to friction 
ot the journal in the box and decrease that opposed to rolling (Morin 
regarded the latter as being inversely proportional to the diameter), 
and - they help the car to pass over obstacles in the road. The 
relation which gives the traction strain T to be developed to drive a 
v heel of weight P and radius R over an obstacle of height 1l is: 

^ ^ \/yrj ^ ^ig diameter is yet more efficient when bi«' 

obstacles have to be met. Big wheels wear out the road less than do 
small, heavily loaded wheels, which have a very destructive influence 
on loads, also the big wheels cause less dust, at an equal tangential 
speed they turn less rapidly than small wheels, and suspend the bodv 
of the car and the motor at a greater height above the ground. The 
inconveniences of large wheels are that they are very heavy, and that 
the power being applied to the nave and the resistance to the tyre, the 
spoke between the two bends, the more so according to its °reater 

o o 


WHEELS AND TYRES OF AUTOMOBILES. 


329 


length. As a rule, the resistance of a wheel is calculated as the 
inverse proportion of the square of the radius compared with the 
strains it exerts vertically in the plane of the wheel, and as in inverse 
proportion ot the cube ot this radius compared with the transversal 
strains it has to undergo more accidentallv. Bending can be 
prevented by a device similar to that employed by de Dion-Bouton, 
who applied the power to the felloes. Another disadvantage 
of big wheels is the risk of warping, owing to chain trans¬ 
missions having led to the adoption of journals without setting, 
and consequently wheels that are not dished; but now it is possible 
to employ chains for wheels mounted on slightly set journals. Big 
wheels are more difficult to lodge, and it is necessary to increase the 
space between the wheels; also turning demands greater space. 
Oars mounted on big wheels are higher, and consequently not so 
stable, but crank axles can be employed, in which case increase 
ot the size of the wheels causes stability. With big wheels the speed 
has to be reduced more when turning, and in consequence of this the 
transmission gear is more complicated. But as the consideration of 
safety comes first, solidity must be assured before all else, and as 
wheelwrights learn to make more durable wheels their diameter can 
be augmented. 

Automobile wheels have been made low, especially for vehicles 
carrying a number of passengers. In the Scotte 1897 omnibus the 
diameter of the fore-wheels is 0770 m. (3031 in.) for a load of 
1,280 kg. (2,816 lb.), and that of the near wheels 0 - 900 m. (35 4 in.) 
for a load of 1,945 kg. (4,279 lb.). In the de Dion-Bouton 1897 
omnibus the diameters are respectively 0 8 m. (31 5 in.) and 1 m. 
(39‘37 in.) for loads of 980 kg. (2,156 lb.) and 2,100 kg. (4,620 lb.). In 
the Weidknecht omnibus, however, the steering wheels, which are at 
the rear, have a diameter of B10 m. (43’3 in.), and the driving wheels 
a diameter of 1-4 m. (551 in.) for a load of 1,750 kg. (3,850 lb.). 
These are tall, but are not so big as the largest wheels employed for 
ordinary carriage building; in the old diligences the diameter of the 
rear wheels was 152 m. (59"84 in.), and those of the Paris omnibuses 
with 30 seats measure P52 m. (59*84 in.); in ordinary delivery carts 
the diameter is 2 m. (78-74 in.). 

It would be well to make the fore-wheels of the same diameter as 
the rear ones, considers Forestier, so as to be able to load them 
equally, and so decrease the risk of the car’s swinging round, the 


330 


THE AUTOMOBILE, 


length of the axle being increased to allow of the same steering angle 
without reducing the width of the frame and body. 

Tyre width now may be considered. On pleasure cars the tyres 
frequently have a width of 1 mm. per 5 kg. (1 in. per 280 lb.) of load; 
in diligences 1 mm. per 10 kg. (1 in. per 560 lb.); in the Paris 
omnibuses, which usually run on pavements where the wheel mark is 
neglectable, 1 mm. per 20 kg. (1 in. per 1,120 lb.). The usual width is 5 
cm. (11)7 in.) for a car weighing one ton ; 75 mm. (21)5 in.) lor two tons ; 
and 10 cm. (31)3 in.) for three tons or more. These widths apply to the 
driving wheels, mere bearing wheels usually having a narrower tyre. 

There is no distinct and accepted theory respecting the width of 
tyres. Morin maintained that wide tyres increase the resistance to 
rolling on a hard road and decrease it on a solt one. Dupuit 
considers that widening the tvres has no effect on macadamised roads, 
but a favourable effect on pavement. De Mauni says that a wide 
tyre is preferable for sandy, very dusty or very muddy roads, but the 
opposite with a thin layer of sticky mud. De Mauni recommends 
that a long narrow contact surface be given to the wheel tyre. 

These contradictions are more apparent than real, because so much 
depends upon the condition of the roads experimented with. Thus, 
on a compressible road there is an advantage in widening the tyre, 
but if the road is also scattered over with pebbles a wide tyre will 
increase the number of obstacles met with. Methodical experiments 
are wanted to settle the width which has most chance of giving best 
results for a number of more or less complex circumstances. It is to 
be feared that the width admitted now is too little. In the case of 
heavy vehicles, the necessity of a good road must be emphasised. 
The trials at Liverpool in 1<39(3 made this clear. The imper¬ 
fections of ordinary roads are the chief source of the great cost 
of maintenance and also the principal factor of the risk attached to 
all systems of mechanical road traction. 

In order to avoid making deep wheel marks, as these impede 
traction, the surface of the wheel in contact with the ground must be 
increased and, length of contact being equal, the narrowest contact 
will be the best, because with it the tracks will be slightest. The only 
way to lengthen the contact of rigid tyres is to increase the diameter 
of the wheel, a matter that has been discussed already. Often 

«y 

enough tyres have to be made rather wide to obtain as much as 
possible of the condition for minimum traction. 


WHEELS AND TYRES OF AUTOMOBILES. 331 

Wheels can be classed under three chief headings: (1) wheels 
with wooden spokes ; (2) wheels with metal spokes, and (3) solid 
metal wheels. 

\\ heels with wooden spokes may have the nave made of twisted 
elm to avoid clefts, but preferably the nave is of bronze, case-hardened 
iron, or cast steel. Figs. 312 and 313 represent two bronze naves as 
made by Hannoyer, the first being mounted on an iron box and 
the second forming a box in a single piece. For heavy vehicles the 
spokes are made of acacia wood or oak ; the former polishes better 
than oak and is tougher, and for these reasons is preferred for tine 



Fig. 312.— Bronze Nave mounted Fig. 313. —Bronze Nave forming 

on Iron Box. one with Box. 


carriage work ; but it is difficult to find it thick, and in any case it 
has not the solidity of oak. 

The felloes of wooden wheels are made of ash, more rarely elm, and 
sometimes metal. As the journals cannot be given the ordinary set 
the wheels cannot be dished much, though sometimes they are slightly 
dished : dishing somewhat decreases the solidity of the wheels, but it 
makes them more elastic. Also, the set of the axle and the dishing 
of the wheel make cars roll better. 

Wooden felloes are employed on wooden wheels usually, and 
then the number of spokes is always double that of the felloes which 
are in odd numbers (7 or fi). They are fastened by aid of wooden 
pegs, and so fixed that the large axis of their elliptical section is 
placed transversely. When they have to support the toothed chain 
wheel, this is bolted to bosses by which the wheels are reinforced. 
The spokes are secured to the felloes by shoulder tenons and mortises. 










































































































THE AUTOMOBILE. 


332 


A\ ith metal felloes the spokes are fitted into metal sockets which are 
bolted to the felloe (Fig. 314). Tenons and mortises are employed to 
fasten the spokes and nave, whereas with a metal nave the spokes are 
usually pressed together between two plates united by bolts placed 
between the spoke joints. 

A\ ooden wheels wear very well, and are much more in vogue than 
v heels with metal spokes. However, they have to be tightened from 
time to time to remedy the looseness due to wear and hygroscopic 
variations which affect the spoke ends. To avoid this Gerard 



Fig. 314. 


Fig. 314. 


Fig. 31G. 

-Spoke i\ Bolted Socket. Figs. 315 and 316.— Lemoixk Naves for 

Metal Spokes. 


invented a device which is too new to permit of a decisive opinion 
being expressed on its merits, and since then the Etablissements du 
Creusot has patented a system. 

The devices employed in order to render possible the setting ox 
the axles and the dishing of the wheels are nearly all based on\he 
employment of toothed gear, as is that of Foucher and Delachanel 
for instance; the devices employed by de Dion-Bouton. Gautier- 
Wehrle, already described amongst the systems of transmission, 
also enable setting and dishing with very good results. 

The second class of wheels have steel spokes of small section ; 
these wheels cannot work in compression as wooden ones do, but only 
for traction. The axle not being supported by the spoke below the 
nave that spoke, bending beneath the weight, is suspended by the one 




































































WHEELS AND TYRES OF AUTOMOBILES. 


333 


above to the top part of the wheel. The spokes get larger in section 
from nave to felloe. The spokes are always arranged so as to give the 
wheel the aspect of two battened cones welded by their base. This 
double dishing gives the wheels the advantage of resisting, in both 
directions, lateral shocks so frequent against kerb-stones and against 
rails without guards. The spokes may be direct or tangential. 
Direct spokes are placed radially, and to fix them in position they are 
run through a hole in the felloe, against which they rest by a 
projecting part, and the end is screwed in the nave; the useful length 



is regulated by a nut. The tangential strain they support causes 
them to bend in the direction of displacement of the car. Tangential 
spokes run from the nave to their concentric circumference, and they 
are fixed by the head to the nave and screwed to the felloe. They 
run half in one direction, half in the other, so that the driving 
may be forwards as well as backwards; they resist the moment of 
torsion better than others; this torsion tends to be produced from 
the nave to the felloe when the latter is abruptly stopped by an 
obstacle. Figs. 315 and 316 represent two types of naves for metal 
spokes invented by Lemoine; Fig. 317 gives a vertical section of the 
nave and a section of the felloe of a wheel with metal spokes made by 
the Peugeot firm, which first adopted metal for car-wheel spokes, 
previously employed only for motor-cycles and voitiuettes, the 

































o34 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


spokes are medium hard steel, resisting 100 kg. per mm. 3 (63 49 tons 
per square inch) of section, and there are ball bearings. Metal spokes 
are lighter than wood, but they must be made perfect. 

Solid metal wheels are quite a recent application. Those of the 
New York Electric Vehicle Company have solid segments instead of 
spokes made of steel, 4 mm. (157 in.) thick, arranged in the same 
truncated cone surfaces as ordinary spokes, so as to leave between 
them a greater space near the nave than near the periphery, where 
they are separated by a wooden felloe shaped in section like a 
crescent to receive the pneumatic tyre. 

With regard to wheel tyres, light cars are furnished exclusively 
with indiarubber tyres, which are essential at great rates of speed for 
the comfort of passengers and the preservation of the mechanism. 
Heavy cars of slower speeds generally have metal tyres, but the trials 
of October, 1898, demonstrated a marked tendency to adopt india- 
rubber. The plates of line iron of the best quality are centred cold 
when the diameter of the tyre section is very great, and hot in 
the opposite case. The ends are then welded so that the interior 
diameter of the tyre will be exactly equal to the exterior diameter of 
the telloe ; the tyre is fixed hot to the felloe. The hammering to 
which the tyre is subjected chiefly on pavements exerts destructive 
effects on iron, especially when the wheels are heavily loaded. 
Maurice Le Blant successfully employed for tractors and brakes 
tyres 75 mm. (2 95 in.) wide of (1) iron of usual thickness, which 
snapped very soon; (2) iron 40 mm. (1*57 in.) thick, which was 
crushed according to the working off in rolling; (3) steel 40 mm. 
(1*57 in.) thick, which was soon crushed considerably; the tyre 
had acquired a width of 90 mm. (3-54 in.) at the exterior cir¬ 
cumference, though it retained that of 75 mm. (2-95 in.) at the 
inner circumference. However, the steel was extra soft, and hard 
steel would have resisted much better. G. Brabant recommends 
steel giving a rupture strain of from 65 kg. to 70 kg. per mm. 2 
(41-26-44-4 tons per square inch), manufacturing it in the rollino- 

o q 

mill like a wagon tyre. 

Solid indiarubber tyres must be secured firmly to the felloe to 
prevent parting, which would make the car unfit for work, and mio-ht 
even cause serious accidents. They should be made wide enough not 
to enter tram rails. They are fixed to the felloe by (1) pressure, (2) 
cement, or by (3) circular bands with or without bolts. For the 


WHEELS AND TYRES OF AUTOMOBILES. 335 



Fig- 318. —Vi net Pressed Tyre. Fig. 319. —Clincher and Hannover Pressed 
Tyre. Fig. 320. —Louriere Pressed Tyre. Fig. 321. —Torrilhon Tyre. 
Figs. 322 and 323. —Hannoyer Tyre and Bouquillon Tyre Screwed On. 
Fig. 324. — Kelly Tyre with Wires. Fig. 325. —Hannoyer Tyre with Twisted 
Wires. 






















































336 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


pressure method, the metal felloe is U-shaped, each branch being bent 
upwards so as to enclose the tyre in a cavity with a dovetail section 
which secures it when pressed. This system enables a tyre to be fixed 
or removed without sending the wheel to the works. There is the dis- 
advantage that the part forming the lugs of the dovetail is almost lost 
as regards elasticity; the indiarubber should not pass beyond the iron, 
which would then work in space. Angular parts must be avoided in 
the felloe profile which, under the infiuence of pressure, might tear the 
tyre. The profile of the Yinet felloe (Fig. 318) appears to be devised 
well, because the indiarubber exerts pressure on all the various points 
and it is inserted sufficiently deep to hold the tyre, which also is 
cemented to the felloe hot with a gutta-percha glue. The Clincher and 
certain Hannoyer wheels also have pressed tyres (see Fig. 319). In 
the Loubiere system (Fig. 320) the inserted part is not thick, and 
elasticity is not lost; transversal pins retain the indiarubber. 

For cementing on the tyres, the U-shaped felloe has straight 
branches ; first it is coated with indiarubber solution and a band of 
strongly vulcanised indiarubber is applied : then a second band less 
vulcanised is put on, and finally the tyre. All is heated in a steam 
chest usually at 140° C. (284 F.) for two hours, to give it the proper 
cohesion. This system is -said to deprive the indiarubber of some ol 
its natural elasticity; this is true for the two vulcanised bands, but 
to a much less degree for the tyre itself. This system necessitates 
the wheels being sent to the works lor the tyre to be changed or 
merely repaired, and it forms a general structure defective in 
uniformity. Cemented tyres, when well made, wear quite well enough, 
say the manufacturers, for from 5,000 km. to 8,000 km. (roughly, 
3,100 to 5,000 miles). Both Torrilhon and Hannoyer employ this 
method. Torrilhon’s tyre is shown by Fig. 321. Hannoyer sometimes 
fastens the first band of indiarubber to the tyre with screws whose 
heads are buried in the second band of vulcanised indiarubber (see 
Fig. 322). Hannoyer and Bouquillon adopted this process for wooden 
felloes, to which metal rims are attached by long screws to which the 
tyre adheres (see Fig. 323). As the heat required for vulcanisation 
on iron would destroy the wood, it is necessary, once the metal rim is 
applied hot, to withdraw it and not replace it till after heating. 

When circular bands without bolts are employed, the felloe is 
U-shaped and bell-mouthed, the solid indiarubber being retained in 
it by two steel rods, which form its core and run with it all round the 


WHEELS AND TYRES OF AUTOMOBILES. 


337 


wheel. The widening out of the felloe prevents the tyre from ever 
being caught between the edge of the tyre and the ground, and runs 
no risk of being cut. As the length of indiarubber employed is 
greater than the circumference of the wheel, it suffices to remove the 
damaged part without replacing it; if too long, another is substituted 
for it, but all the rest of the tyre can be used again. This system 
ought to make the tyre untearable. It is employed by Kelly, who 
uses soft steel wires, electrically welded, as bands (see Fig. 324). Han- 
noyer tAvists the wire mechanically instead of Avelding it, and the 
twists prevent the indiarubber gliding along the wire, as, moreover, do 
the transversal projections on the metal rim (Fig. 325). 



Fig. 326. Fig. 327. Fig. 328. 

Fig. 326. —Ducasble Tyre with Band and Bolts. Fig. 327. —Compound Tyre. 

Fig. 328. —Ducasble Hollow Tyre. 


Circular bands Avith bolts are employed on the Ducasble tyre (Fig. 
326), which has a groove with triangular section on the inside into 
which a hollow tube of the same shape fits. In the centre of the base 
of the tube there is a groove through Avhich the bolt heads are placed 
and then moved round one quarter turn to bring their lugs to a right 
angle with the edges of the groove. The stems of these bolts run 
through the steel U-shaped rim, which receives the tyre and, if 
necessary, the Avooden Avheel felloe; each bolt is tightened by a small 
nut screwed on the end. The joint of the tube is made to fall 
betAveen tAVO bolts nearer than the others and not vertical to the 
tyre joint, the tAVO ends of which are cemented Avith indiarubber 
solution. The inventor claims for his system impossibility of 
tearing away, possibility of employing a very elastic indiarubber 
merely surrounded by a cloth, which Avears better than hard vul¬ 
canised indiarubber, and (3) the facility of removal and fixing, and 
the replacing of worn parts. 

AV 
















338 


TIIE AUTOMOBILE. 


Compound Ltyres are solid tyres, but the interior is formed of a 
more elastic material so as to give about the same resistance as a 
solid tyre with much of the pliancy of a pneumatic. The tyre (I ig. 
327 ) is a jointless ring moulded separately with a pure indiarubber 
core and a less elastic and more resisting indiarubber exterior. It is 
secured by bolts and wing nuts to the steel rim, which has very broad 



Fi". 329. 



330. 



Fig. 329. —Michelin Tyre. Fig. 330. —Bolt 
and Nut of Michelin Tyre. Fig. 331.— 
Dunlop Tyre. 


flanges or ribs to protect the indiarubber and, if necessary, the wooden 
felloe against lateral shocks and friction. 

In hollow indiarubber tyres, when under the great pressure from 
the car, the resistance of the air in the hollow part is not sufficient, so 
that it seems the tyres merely are equivalent to solid ones with a 
reduced section. To make them resisting enough, Torrilhon forms the 
air chamber of a series of cells separated from each other by radial 
partitions. This air chamber is cemented to the other part of the 
tyre which surrounds it, and this in turn is cemented to the metal rim. 

























































































WHEELS AND TYRES OF AUTOMOBILES. 


339 


Ducasble’s tyre (Fig. 328) has a vacuum above the metal tube; this tube 
has a rough rectangular section. The hollow tyre, however, is not 
suitable for an automobile; at most it might be employed for a motor¬ 
cycle or a voiturette, though pneumatic tyres are always better. 

There are many rival pneumatic tyres for automobiles. The most 
common form of pneumatic tyre certainly is the Michelin detachable 
tyre, a section of which with the valve is represented by Figs. 329 
and 330. It is maintained in the steel rim by two flanges, Avhich 
wedge each other in the tyre hooks by four bolts, similar to that 
shown in Fig. 330, which terminate inside by a V, the two branches 



of which nip the flanges and the wheel rim and complete the 
adherence of tyre and wheel. In Figs. 329 and 330 A is the 
valve body, B the valve central piece, C nut, D cap, E spindle, 
F indiarubber disc, G N and U indiarubber washer, H large 
nut, I nut within rim, J plate, K rim, L needle, M and Y 
copper washer, O envelope, P bolt, Q wing nut, R ribbon or 
band, S hood, T leather plug, U W protecting cover, X air 
chamber, Y cushion. The Gallus pneumatic tyre manufactured 
by the Societe des Anciens Etablissements Edeline has not a 
protective crescent, whose place is occupied by the jacket thickened 
with a second cloth jacket buried in the indiarubber. This tyre is 
furnished with the Sclaverand valve. I he Engelbert tyre is similar 
to the previous minus the valve. The Talbot and Continental tyres 
also have not crescents and have indiarubber covers. On the con¬ 
trary, the Yital and Clincher tyres have a crescent, and the Eole has 
a jacket made of cloth and leather. In the Dunlop motor tyre (Fig. 









































I 


4 


340 THE AUTOMOBILE. 

331) the air chamber is made of indiarubber without any cementing; 
the joining is vulcanised, as also is the little plate connecting the 
valve with the air chamber. A tape protects the air chamber from 
the spoke heads. The jacket is composed of from seven to eight 
stout pieces of cloth with several additional pieces at the tread buried 
in indiarubber. The tyre is vulcanised once in one piece, no parts 
being cemented on afterwards. Four or six bolts fasten the jacket to 
a steel rim, which can be fitted either to metal or wooden tyres. 
The Clipper pneumatic tyre is illustrated in section by Fig. 332. 

The pressure of the air on the chamber of a pneumatic tyre is 
about 4 kg. per cm. 3 (56 lb. per sq. in.) with light cars, and 
from 5 kg. to 6 kg. per cm. 3 (71 lb. to 85 lb. per sq. in.) with 
heavy cars. The diameter of the tyres is on the increase, and 
Michelin now manufactures some having a diameter of 120 mm. 
(4'7 in.), and the Anciens fitablissements make some 130 mm. 
(5T in.) in diameter for 2-ton cars, and certainly the size will be 
increased further. In wheels with metal spokes the tyre is fixed to 
the rim, which itself is fixed to the spokes. In wheels with wooden 
spokes the metal rim to receive the tyre is applied hot on the wooden 
felloe, to which it is secured by flat-headed screws; sometimes, how¬ 
ever, there is no wooden felloe and the metal rim is applied hot on 
the metal sockets on the spoke tips, to which it is fastened with 
flat-headed screws or rivets. 

Pneumatic tyres soften vibrations and decrease the traction strain. 
Michelin’s experiments clearly demonstrated these facts. De Mauni 
has demonstrated that of two wheels equally loaded and with 
equivalent contact surfaces the wheel that rolls the better is that with 
the most elongated contact. In the case of a wheel with rigid tyre 
this elongation can be obtained only by an increase of the diameter, 
always very limited, so that the wheel makes a track and sinks 
proportionally to the load of the vehicle. With an indiarubber tyre, 
on the contrary, elongation of the contact is obtained not from the 
diameter but the elasticity of the rolling surface; here, instead of 
leaving a track and sinking, moulding the ground, the tyre yields, 
spreads out until the area of contact is sufficient for the sum of the 
pressures to equilibrate the weight of the system. From this it can 
be understood why the indiarubber tyre decreases the resistance to 
rolling, and also why the pneumatic tyre is superior to the solid; the 
first becomes elongated under the weight of the wheel differently from 


WHEELS AND TYRES OF AUTOMOBILES. 


341 


the second. Elasticity limits the effect in the solid tyre to the part 
near Hie ground, which is for the moment compressed, whereas in the 
pneumatic tyre effects of this compression instantaneously spread 
over the circumference of the tyre, the seat of the elasticity here 
being an air cushion under pressure the molecular actions and 
reactions ol which are propagated without perceptible work. 

The plating of pneumatic tyres, done by placing on them metal 
segments which replace, and are supposed to be more effective than, 
the rubber on the ordinary outer cover, is condemned by de Mauni, 
who considers that the protective cover should be left as pliant as 
possible. The pneumatic tyre has one defect apart from the liability 
of punctures. As has been said, in order to reduce the resistance to 
rolling it is necessary to make the contact surface as long and as 
narrow as possible; whilst the tyre elongates under the pressure of 
the car it also expands transversally. This is a defect, and explains 
why, at a given moment, an increased traction strain may result from 
a greater elasticity, and why, consequently, when the road is good, 
the tyre should be inflated to the fullest extent. The question as to 
what is the best degree of inflation thus is very complex, being 
dependent on the variable condition of the road; probably a very 
lucid answer to the question cannot be given. Pneumatic tyres are 
becoming more and more common, in spite of punctures, bursts, and 
expense of repairs. 

Of protected tyres, the Chameroy tyre is an example. This is 
made of solid indiarubber. A groove on the periphery in the median 
plane receives a rod having a U-section ; this rod is in several pieces 
for adjusting and is threaded with hollow metal segments. This is 
claimed to give great durability without any particular decrease of 
the pliancy and also to prevent tripping; experiments with it were 
quite successful. The Teuf-teuf is a protected tyre ; the air chamber 
is inside a metal rim, and a piece of indiarubber with a curved base 
presses upon the chamber and issues from and enters the rim by a 
groove, which runs all round, according to the pressure it has to 
support; this indiarubber is always protected against friction with 
the edges of the groove by a metal jacket. If, in spite of all this, the 
chamber bursts, the vehicle merely runs on a solid tyre. In the protec 
tion a belt is stitched to the rolling surface of the tyre, and the metal 
plates with centred profile are threaded on this belt, a band of felt or 
thin indiarubber being placed between the plates and the tyre. These 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


312 

inventions, however, have not that guarantee which can only be 
obtained by considerable experience. 

The elasticity of the wheels just treated is all outside the rim of 
the wheels, though endeavours have been made to have it inside. 
In an American wheel, probably reserved for the bicycle, each spoke 
was a steel foil with its point hinged to the felloe; the felloe had a 
series of hinges by which it could be bent and placed flat on the 
ground. De Mauni has manufactured several wheels of this type 
since 1875, though they have not been adapted for modern auto¬ 
mobiles. The difficulties of construction are very great, and their 
flexibility causes injurious lateral displacements of their centre of 
gravity. Other inventors have placed the elasticity in the nave itself; 
Baffin inserts indiarubber washers between the axle box and the top 
part of the nave. In another system, a metal piece is in the centre of 
the wheel; exteriorly this metal piece is star-shaped and is covered 
exactly by a regular indiarubber tyre; the wheel strictly so called is 
mounted on the nave thus constituted. The spokes are metal with a 
ciuciform section, and the rim is composed ot a wooden centre 
between two metal parts, the spokes of the wheels being fixed to one 
and the other rolling on the ground. Beguin constructs an ingenious 
wheel of metal, and in various parts of it places pieces of indiarubber : 
in particular there is a sleeve around the nave box between the discs 
which secure the spokes, and sheaths in the V which the spokes form 
in their junction with the nave. However, in most of these wheels 
the surface of contact does not elongate under pressure, but vibra- 
1 ec ease, so that for several of them a pneumatic tyre is 
employed to lessen the traction strain. Hitherto it has been im¬ 
possible to construct wheels which could decrease resistance to rolling 
without employing elastic tyres. 

The Hall pneumatic wheel has neither felloe nor spokes, being- 
composed simply of a nave surrounded by a big pneumatic tyre 
(Fig. 333), which consists of an air chamber, a cloth, and a jacket. 
This wheel, owing to its diameter, is said to be able to support a 
weight of 500 kg. (1,1001b.), although the pressure per given area is 

} c e tyre. In Fig. 333, which shows the Hall 
pneumatic wheel, A is the axle, B the place for the toothed trans¬ 
mission wheel, and C is the safety wheel. The pneumatic wheel is 
550 mm. (21*6 in.) high and 275 mm. (10 8 in.) thick. 


343 


CHAPTER XIV. 

SPRINGS, UNDERFRAME, AND BODY. 

The springs by which the underframe of an automobile rests on the 
axles must fulfil three conditions. They must afford a sufficient, 
resistance and elasticity to support their load without their shape 
being altered permanently, their flexibility must deaden the effect of 
jolts on the car and passengers, and they must decrease the resistance 
to rolling. It is evident that by preventing everything above them 
from having to jump at each jolt, springs decrease the loss of kinetic 
energy due to inequalities of the road. The quality of the steel of 
which it is made is a great factor in the value of k spring ; the finest, 
variety is selected, and it is hardened and tempered in a very delicate 
manner, as are all the operations in the manufacture of springs, 
which must be entrusted always to specialists. Steel should not be 
used unless it gives without permanent deformation an elongation of 
7 per 1,000, and in calculating the resistance of a spring the plate 
which works most is not to undergo an elongation of more than 
5 per 1,000. The plates, varying in thickness from 5 mm. to 10 mm. 
(T96 in. to *393 in.), and in length from 0*8 m. to IT m. (31'5 in. to 
43*3 in.) for the main blade of ordinary springs, are centred 
according to cylindric surfaces of suitable profile. The curve radii 
decrease from the main blade to the smallest. If the elongation and 
the strain are to remain the same in all the blades their thickness 
also must decrease gradually, a condition aimed at in practice. To 
compare the flexibility of several springs a unit of pressure is taken, 
100 kg. (220 lb.), for example, the decrease of flexion they undergo 
under this pressure being measured. Within the weight limits of 
modern automobiles this decrease per unit may be taken as constant 
for a same spring, and consequently the flexion of this spring is 
proportional to the pressure. 

The chief types of springs are five in number. First, the straight 
springs have rolls above, as in Fig. 334, and rolls below when the 
springs are made to curve in the opposite direction, and opposite 


t 


344 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


when one roll is above and the other below. These rolls usually are 
formed by coiling the ends of the chief blades. Rarely these ends, or 



one of them, are left straight, so that they can be inserted in slides 
made in the underframe of the carriage; in that case these springs 
are called slide springs. As a rule they are formed of five blades, 



Fig. 335. —Straight Spring with Eight Blades. 


though for heavy vehicles there may be as many as eight (see 
Fig. 335). These straight springs are very suitable for heavy loads. 
The second kind is the nipper spring, composed of straight, 



opposite springs hinged together; according to the form of their 
joints these springs have hinges or loops, or sometimes a crook. 

The third kind is the half-nipper springs, the top part of which as 
compared with the preceding, consists simply of half a straight sprint 
Cee springs, the fourth kind, are thus designated because they 




















SPRINGS, UNDERFRAME , AND BODY. 345 

have the term of the letter C. The body of the car is supported at 
the rear by leather braces suspended to the end of the Cee spring. 
They deaden shocks in the longtitudinal direction as well as 
vertically. They have a good appearance, but are very expensive, and 



consequently are reserved for the most fashionable carriages and 
certain voiturettes; the Darracq electric coupe, ‘the Auge, and the 
Lepape cars have these springs. Fig. 336 represents a Cee spring 
with hinge, and Fig. 337 a Cee spring without hinge, in which the 



exterior blades run from one end to the other; both of these are made 
by Bail and Pozzi. Fig. 338 is a Hannoyer Cee spring which has 
been adopted for the Darracq coupe. The leather brace winds on a 
piece of toothed iron. Sometimes the nipper and Cee springs are 
combined, as in the Bail and Pozzi type (Fig. 339). 

Spiral springs form the fifth kind. These are coiled springs, quite 
















































346 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


different in form to the preceding. Fig. 340 represents one of the 
types made by the Compagnie des Hauts-fourneaux. They support 
considerable loads, and some of them are flattened only under a 
pressure of eight tons, though they weigh only 16 kg. (35'2 lb.); con¬ 
sequently they are often employed for heavy vehicles. 

The suspension implies the number of springs by means of which 
the axles support the underframe with motor, transmission gear, and 
the body. In the most common system the underframe is suspended 
above the axles, the body being rigidly fixed to it; then the trans¬ 
mission gear (endless chains and hinged axle) must have sufficient 
pliancy to allow the motor to follow the relative displacements of the 
axles when the flexion of the springs changes. This system protects 
the motor against jolts, though the passengers are affected by the 
vibration. In a second system the frame rests on the axles without 
springs, and then the transmission between motor and axle can be 
rigid and the body is suspended above ; thus it is free from motor 
vibrations, though the motor suffers from jolts. In a third system 
the frame is suspended above the axles with the motor and trans¬ 
mission, which are always interdependent with it, and the body is 
suspended above the frame ; thus both motor and passengers are not 
subjected to the effect of vibrations. 

Double suspension evidently is good but complicates the car.. 
With it the transmission must be pliant, although when the frame 
is suspended only in front a rigid transmission can be employed in 
the rear. The object of the suspension is to prevent inertia of the 
car and to intervene when the car is in collision with an obstacle. To 
do this it must allow the vehicle to rock in all directions—vertically, 
longitudinally, and transversally. But when chains are employed for 
transmission transversal vibration must not be too much, or the 
wheels gearing with the chains will have to be furnished with cheeks. 
Nipper springs allow vertical displacements, not much longitudinal 
displacement, and hardly any transversal displacement. When the 
car has a pivoted fore-carriage these springs are suitable only when they 
are light; on this condition only can they maintain the crown of this 
fore-carriage in a plane. Springs with a single blade favour trans¬ 
versal vibrations because the blade twists. In order to permit the 
variations which result from this torsion in the horizonal spacing of 
the two extremities of the blade, side-pieces are employed uniting 
each of its ends to a metal piece forming one Avith the frame. Some- 


SPRINGS, UNDERFRAME, AND BODY. 


347 


times the extremities of the springs are joined on both of the sides 
by a transversal blade, which in its centre supports the frame. In 
transmitting motion from springs to the body and non-driving axle, 
the blades of the springs must work by extension. For this condition 
to be fulfilled when the driving wheels are in the rear, which is usually 
the case, the rear blade of the spring fixed to the motor axle must be 
attached to the frame by rolls, whilst the front blade is fixed to- the 
fore axle. The side pieces must likewise be placed at the front ex¬ 
tremity of the rear spring and the rear extremity of the front spring. 

Forestier considers that when pneumatic tyres are employed for 
vehicles weighing one ton per axle, the wheel journals or their pivots 
may be fixed direct to the frame, between which and the body 
transversal springs may be inserted; then transmission from motor 
to wheels would be much easier owing to their interdependence. 

lien the wheels have metal tyres, axles and springs must be 
employed, it seems ; though in certain American cars, whilst the axles 
are retained, the motor is not suspended, though the body is. In 
principle the transversal springs which form this suspension do not 
admit the length of the bending blades to vary, and this is a grave defect 
—corrected, however, by Clement in the Columbia cars built at Paris. 

Simple suspensions are about the same as those of ordinary horse- 
drawn carriages. There are four nipper springs for light cars ; rather 
heavy cars, such as delivery cars and omnibuses, often have five 
springs—two nippers in the front and three straight springs in the 
rear. The rear springs can be fixed under an iron cross-piece moved 
lengthwise by aid of a regulating screw to compensate for elongation 
of chains, though it seems more suitable to adapt the chain instead. 
Sometimes, as in the Compagnie Generale des Automobiles 1898 car, the 
rear springs are straight with a clip at the fore end and a worm rod 
at the rear to regulate the length of the chains. The springs with 
inverted clips, like those recommended by Feraud for railway 
carriages, were employed on a Jeantaud petrol car invented in 1894. 

A new device for suspending the fore-carriage has been patented 
by Jeantaud, and it is shown by Figs. 341 to 343. It consists of two 
springs f f placed parallel with the fore-axle h at a sufficient distance 
to form a supporting parallelogram, the two long sides of which are 
not deformed. The springs are joined to the axle by irons c c quite 
close to the point where the axle rests on the wheels, so as to reduce 
the projection; the clips leave the springs all their elasticity, but do 


34-8 


THE AUTOMOBILE . 


not allow lateral displacements in spite of the absence of guides. 
The body of the car e rests on the centre of the springs / / by means 
of supports around whose axes it can rock. 

Double suspensions may now be noticed. In some cars of the 
Compagnie Generale des Automobiles—who now seem, however, to 
have abandoned the device—the frame supported above the axles in 
the ordinary manner supports the body by means of other springs. 
It is the same in the Lepape car, in which the body is supported by 
the underframe generally with Cee springs. The motor is placed in 



rear axle and supported by it; this spring supports the rear and 
main part of the weight of the motor and transmission gear. The 
very light fore-part is supported by a shaft, with a pinion at each end 
driving the motor wheels by endless chains. In this car, as in that about 
to be described, there is a toothed transmission from motor to axle. 

In the Lanty, Hommen and Dumas delivery car, Figs. 344 and 
345, the underframe C is supported above the fore axle by nipper 
springs R R, and above the rear axle by the rigid props B, which are 
fitted to the journals of this axle. The motor D has a shaft furnished 
with pulleys which drive by belts those on the intermediary shaft I. 
The latter turns in bearings supported by arms L, which form one 
with the props B, entraining by means of a pinion the toothed wheel 


















































































SPRINGS, UNDERFRAME, AND BODY. 


319 


of the differential mounted on the motor axle. All the system of the 
motor and the transmission may be said to pivot around the axle 
to follow it in the relative displacements it undergoes by flexion of 


0 



the springs R R. The body is suspended above the underframe at 
the rear by springs M and in the front .by spring N. 

Underframes now will have attention. The underframe rests upon 
the axles and supports motor, transmission gear, and body. Usually 
it is formed of two longitudinal bars united in front and rear by two 


















































































































































350 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


cross-pieces and firmly inter tied between the two. Originally—at least 
in the case of light cars—it was made of ash wood, but now steel is 
employed generally, usually in form of C or drawn out in tubes. In 
carriage building, thin channelled steel and tubes snap, owing to lack 
of judgment as regards their proper employment, the flat, round, or 
thick irons which have been and are employed have sections with very 
slight moments of inertia considering the weight. Tubes are lighter 
than these irons, but they must be brazed very skilfully. Profiled 
metal may be solid, and by its means the motor and transmission 
gear are fixed more conveniently. Sometimes the inside is lined with 
wood, which increases resistance without much extra weight. The 
intertying of the longitudinal bars must be particularly firm to 
prevent dislocation under the influence of vibrations and strains. To 
the static efforts are added the reactions of the parts in motion; con¬ 
sequently it is not prudent to rely upon the formula for resistance of 
materials to calculate the dimensions of the various pieces, and a big 
margin of safety must be left. The frame must, as far as possible, be 
suitable for several interchangeable bodies without any other con¬ 
nections than some points of support furnished with indiarubber 
cushions. At first the frame was made rectilinear, probably because it 
favoured rigidity and interchanging, but it was not elegant. To give 
the body the appearance of descending between the axles, sometimes 
a step was placed between two mud-guards, the top frame comprised 
between the two being painted black. When motor and driving 
wheels are in the rear, as in the Peugeot and most of the Jeantaud 
cars, or in front, as in the Ivrieger cars, disengaging can be obtained 
easily. When the motor is in front above the underframe, and the 
driving wheels behind, as in the Panhard cars, it is necessary for dis¬ 
engaging to have inside the body a shut central corridor for the trans¬ 
missions, but this is inconvenient. When the motor is under the 
frame, as in some of the Jeantaud cars, the axle of the transmission 
alone passes under the floor of the body. 

Motor-cycle and voiturette underframes are tubular in nearly 
all cases, as in the Bollee voiturette, represented by Fig. 346, which 
consists of two side tubes A A, 38 mm. (1-49 in.) in diameter and 4 mm. 
(T57 in.) thick, united by three cross-pieces; the steerage mechanism 
and wheels aie fixed to the front cross-piece, and the intermediary 
transmission to the centre one. This frame weighs about 35 kg. 
(77 lb.) fora car weighing 210 kg. (462 lb.). In the oldest type of 


SPRINGS, UNDERFRAME, AND BODY. 351 

frame the side bars were reinforced near the centre by a stay and two 
rods; but now the side bars are thicker, and the stay and rods not 
used. However, tubular construction is not always employed; for 
instance, the Lombard mylorette and the Farman voiturette are 
exceptions, the latter having a profiled steel frame. 

Cai frames, as a rule, are of profiled steel, the tubular frame being 
an exception, though it is getting more frequent. The Peugeot cars, 
for instance, have a frame of cold-drawn steel tubes without seams; 
all joints are brazed, and fixtures are secured by aid of bolted straps 
encircling the tubes without involving the least perforation; the 
interiors of the tubes are utilised for cooling the water circulating 
around the motor, the water being sent to all parts by a small centri¬ 



fugal pump ; the axles themselves are hollow. All this has the effect 
of lightening the car, which, with four seats, weighs about 830 kg. 
(1,826 lb.). The Darracq electric coupe also has a tubular frame, both 
very elegant and durable; it consists of two side bars in form of 
equally resisting solids composed of tube from 35 mm. (1-38 in.) and 
40 mm. (P57 in.) in diameter, and from 3 mm. to 4 mm. (118 in. to 
157 in.) thick; it weighs only 54 kg. (118-8 lb.) for a load of 
1,100 kg. (2,420 lb.) in running order. The Rossel firm employs a 
tubular frame somewhat similar to the Peugeot car. A Gobron-Brillie 
wagonette was mounted on a tubular frame composed of two poly¬ 
gonal side bars united by intercrossed tubes. The steering gear and 
brake mechanism always are on the frame, and have no connection 
with the body, which is interchangeable; it suffices to loosen the 
four bolts and lift it from its supports, which have indiarubber 
cushions. The Kecheur steam car also has a tubular frame. 

As examples of profiled steel frames, mention may be made of the 








































352 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


Panhard car, in which the interior of the metal is lined with wood 
(see Fig. 442, p. 551), the Brouhot car (see Fig. 4G4, p. 477), the de 
Dietrich cars, and all the heavy vehicles. A type of the heavy car frame 
is that of the Weidknecht omnibus, which in the rear rests directly on 
the steering axle and is suspended on the front axle by aid of springs. 
To prevent the vehicle from being driven by the front axle, two iron 
traction bars unite the fore axle with the frame. r lhe E irons 
employed in the frame are 10 cm. (39 in.) high for omnibuses with 
thirty seats, and 8 cm. (3T5 in.) for those with sixteen seats. 

The bodies of automobiles demand attention now. Before all else 
the body should be solid and as far as possible light and interchange¬ 
able. By fulfilling this last condition the development of automobilism 
is assured. It must be possible to employ an automobile in winter as 
well as in summer, and consequently there should be a suitable body 
for each season. 

The efficient body must be the combined work of two specialists 
—the engineer and the carriage builder—and the best method of 
obtaining this is to clearly define their respective departments and 
give each perfect liberty therein. The flat frame, not having any con¬ 
nections with the body except as regards some points of support, is 
the best to assure this liberty. 

With regard to the carriage builder’s work, some people maintain 
that the automobile, being a new vehicle, should have a new shape, 
and that as it is now the eye naturally will look for the horse. 
Though there is some truth in this, it would be a mistake to abandon 
the present form of car, which is the result of accumulated studies 
and experiments. The carriage builder must adapt existing forms 
to the exigencies of the neiv kind of locomotion, and he can do so 
easily. Solidity and lightness are to be studied and can be obtained 
by employment of suitable materials, sheet iron or steel, aluminium 
and its alloys, and wood. One aluminium alloy—partinium in par¬ 
ticular—is beginning to be largely used, and very light bodies have 
been made with it; a racing body for a Panhard 6 h.p. phaeton 
weighed only 22 kg. (48'4 lb.), and by using partinium in building a 
de Dion-Bouton twenty-seat omnibus which took part in the heavy 
vehicle trials of 1899, there was a reduction in weight of 400 kg*. 
(880 lb.) compared with the ordinary body. Partinium is an alloy of 
aluminium and tungsten. Rolled it gives a tractile strain of from 
32 kg. to 37 kg. per mm. 3 (20 3 tons to 2349 tons per square inch), 




SPRINGS, UNDERFRAME, AND BODY. 


353 


and an elongation of from 8 to 6 per cent., according to the proportion 
of tungsten. It is employed to make car bodies which, strength for 
strength, weigh about half as much as wooden bodies. There is 
difficulty in painting it, special skill being needed to prevent subse¬ 
quent production, at the junction of the metal with the angle irons, 
of a greyish substance which causes swelling. Cast partinium has a 
tractile strength of from 12 kg. to 17 kg. per mm. 2 (7*6 tons to 1079 
tons per square inch) and an elongation of from 12 to 6 per cent. It 
is employed for motor and gear cases even in cars of from 30 h.p. to 
40 h.-p. like the de Dion-Bouton. 

A principle of far more importance with the new style of loco¬ 
motion than with the old is to avoid large transversal surfaces which 
hinder the progress of the car. The problem perhaps will be solved 
by having bevelled glasses in front, these also conducing greatly to 
the comfort of the driver. These glasses are quite feasible, and should 
lessen the total air resistance met by the car, whilst they can be made 
to greatly improve the general appearance. Then, again, cars need 
not be so ugly or so unsightly as sometimes they have been made. 
Until recently little care was bestowed upon carriage work, and 
there was little effort to enhance it by artistic trimming, etc. Now 
attention is being given to this question, and the good results already 
are apparent. Some cars of considerable bulk easily preserve their 
handsome appearance because the addition of the mechanism has 
little effect on the whole. The difficulty is greater with phaetons and 
other light cars owing to the largeness of the gear compared with the 
small bulk of the vehicle. With electric cars, in which the motor and 
gear are reduced to the strict minimum, the matter is easy. It was 
demonstrated at the 1898 and 1899 cab trials that light electric 
cars can be made to be handsome. With petrol cars matters 
are much less convenient, and it is difficult either to beautify or mask 
the motor with its adjuncts (carburetter and cooler), the transmission 
gear, etc. Some persons consider that instead of endeavouring to 
hide the mechanism, on the contrary, its chief features should be 
brought into * bold relief, as is done with railway locomotives ; but a 
petrol motor is more complicated than a locomotive, and it is 
destitute of the simplicity that gives a machine beauty; also it is 
necessary to protect the gear against water and dust and to con¬ 
stantly lubricate it. There are some difficulties in the matter, but it 
is not thought impossible to overcome them, 
x 


351 - 


CHAPTER XV. 

BRAKES FOR AUTOMOBILES. 

It is not necessary to demonstrate the absolute necessity of good 
brakes for cars. Cars in France must have two effective brakes, each 
of which is able automatically to stop or control the driving action of 
the motor. At least one of these systems must act directly on the 
wheels, or cogs immediately in contact with them, and be able to 
instantaneously wedge the wheels; and one of these systems, or a 
special device, must prevent all backward movement. In the case of 
a vehicle with a bogey driving fore-carriage, one of the brake systems 
within reach of the driver must be able to act on the rear wheels of 
the vehicle. Each vehicle hauled must have an efficient and rapid 
system, of brakes which can be worked either by the driver from his 
seat or by a special conductor. 

Steam and electric motors easily can be made to give a braking 
instead of a propulsive effect. As regards petrol, when the governor 
prevents exhaust, the gases are compressed by the piston; and if the 
latter continues to form one with the transmission gear and car, there 
is produced a resisting strain which acts as a brake. Even when the 
exhaust works, the motor can act as brake; for example, in descending 
a gradient the wheels may move quicker than if they were driven by 
the motor only, and if the latter is in gear it produces a retarding 
effect, though this cannot replace the regulation brakes. In this 
chapter, only independent brakes will be considered. The brakes 
annul the kinetic energy of the car by transforming the energy into 
heat by the friction they produce on the wheels, tyres, or on pulleys 
forming one with the wheel or with one of the transmission shafts. 
Thus there are two classes of brake. 

In the first class the brakes act by bringing a shoe into contact 
with the tyre. Lagard proposed one based upon the plan of a scotch¬ 
ing shoe similar to that employed in artillery waggons, and which 
has until late years been used to reduce the recoil of gun-carriages 
when firing. The shoes fall in front of the wheels, which continue 


BRAKES FOR AUTOMOBILES. 


355 


to turn. The length of the cords or chains which unite the shoe to 
the vehicle is such that the wheels cannot pass over the shoes, but 
are fixed between the shoes and the road, in which position they skid. 
It is claimed that the tyres do not bear upon the ground and so are 
not worn; but, on the other hand, the road suffers from this skidding, 
and the car has to be given a slight backward movement before the 
wheels are released. 

The contact of shoe and tyre nearly always is obtained by moving 
the first towards the second; but in the Bollee and Morrisse cars the 
shoe is fixed. In the Bollee car, by means of a single rear wheel 
which can be displaced, the transmission belt is stretched or loosened, 
and a pulley, forming one with the wheel, is brought to its extreme 
position forwards and into contact with the indiarubber shoe fixed to 
the frame. In the Morrisse cars, the rear driving axle, the bridge 
which supports it, and the springs can be moved around an axis of 
suspension by a lever. When they are forward, the motor is pro¬ 
gressively thrown into gear and the car moves forward ; when they 
are to the rear, the motor is thrown out of gear and the wheel tyres 
are applied against the shoes fixed to the car frame. 

Briefly, the following is the device commonly employed for 
ordinary automobiles. When the brake shoe is movable it is brought 
into contact with the tyre by working a lever or screw along which 
can be moved a nut forming one with a rod which acts on the end of 
a lever ; at the other extremity of the lever the shoe is attached. It 
is recommended to make the rod act by traction and not by compres¬ 
sion. For metal tyres the shoe is made of cast iron, wood (twisted 
elm, boxwood, gaiac, has been proposed), or indiarubber. Cast iron 
lasts longest; indiarubber and wood give less noise and greater power 
without wearing the tyre; for indiarubber tyres the shoes are made 
of polished steel. 

The inconveniences of shoe brakes acting on tyres are: (1) 
They are not instantaneous, especially the screw type, because several 
turns of the screw are needed to cause wedging; this, however, 
helps to preserve the car. (2) The shoes on the two wheels are not 
always applied with the same amount of force, and when the road is 
slippery this may cause the car to swing round. De Dion-Bouton 
propose a train of differential gear in the middle of the single shaft; 
rotation of this would cause wedging of the two shoes, but would be a 
great complication. (3) They wear the tyre considerably, especially 


356 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


when the wedged wheels skid along the ground, this very easily 
detaching solid tyres and shearing off the safety bolts of pneumatic 
tyres. Consequently, most wheels with indiarubber tyres do not have 
shoes, these being particularly objectionable with pneumatic tyres. 

The great advantages of shoe brakes are : (1) They act with a lever 
arm as long as possible, it being equal to the radius ol the wheel. (2) 
Therefore their mechanism is simple and reliable. (3) In descents they 
give a gradual wedging, which may be continuous, without demanding 
any work from the driver. (4) When ascending gradients they 
prevent the car from moving backwards. In a word, they are brakes 
for regulating speed, rather than for instantaneous stopping. 

In the Darracq brake a square shaft carries, immediately it 
leaves the case of the change-speed gear, a metal drum or pulley, 
and against this are pressed two bronze discs commanded by a 
pedal placed to the right of the driver. This device is powerful, 
does not cause burning, and acts during both forward and backward 
motion. Fig. 347 gives an idea of its construction. 

The second class is that of the brakes acting on pulleys. The arm 
of the lever which actuates them must not be shorter than for shoe 
brakes, as friction increases very rapidly with the angle of winding, 
and wedging is tight enough for instantaneous stoppage. 

With brakes using plates, winding usually is over only three- 
quarters of the circumference. The plate is covered with a belt of 
leather or camel-hair, studded with wooden pegs to augment adherence 
by aid of a lever. Generally one end of the plate is attached to a 
fixed pivot around which rocks a lever, whose one end is hinged to the 
other end of the plate, and the second end to a traction bar worked 
by the driver. The plate is brought against the pulley, and rotation 
of the wheel tends to tighten it and hasten wedging. Usually the 
pulley is mounted on one of the secondary transmission shafts ; but 
Lehut’s plate brake is mounted on the wheel naves, and that invented 
by Cloos and Sclimaltzer is applied to a toothed wheel inside the nave, 
thus being concealed and protected from dust, mud, and grease, which 
in other systems sometimes cause the brakes not to work. But it is 
difficult to construct and to inspect; and it is not so powerful as the 
ordinary pulley brake. It is suitable only for light pleasure carriages. 

In rope brakes the winding may be in any number of coils; thus 
the power may he said to be limitless, and the action nearly instan¬ 
taneous. The almost universal type of this brake is the well-known 


BRAKES FOR AUTOMOBILES. 


357 


Lemoine brake, which, on the Paris ’buses, both tightens the rope on a 
hopp of the nave and applies the shoes to the tyres. This would have 
two inconveniences for automobiles: it would wedge the wheels and 
produce flat places on the tyres, owing to their friction with the 
ground, and it would wear the tyre by pressure of the shoe. Conse¬ 
quently it has been altered, so as to be regulatable, and shoes are 
discarded. Instead of the conical hempen rope studded with wooden 
cleats, which varied in length with the temperature and wore out 
quickly, use is made of a flat, pliant rope made of a number of steel 



Fig. 347. —Darracq Bkake. 


wires, studded with cleats of wood, leather, linoleum, or sometimes 
copper or iron. Coiled brakes have such advantages that they are 
almost necessary adjuncts of an automobile ; but they also have their 
inconveniences. Pressure must be exerted on the pedal during all 
the time they are acting unless, as in the Landry-Beyroux cars, 
the brake is tightened by a special device. The heating caused by 
friction of the cleats against the pulley under the effect of prolonged 
tightening might cause ignition of the wood. Cars intended for very 
hilly districts have the wooden cleats replaced by metal, which lasts 
longer and causes less severe friction. 

Rope brakes tighten only in forward motion of the car, backward 
motion breaking all connection between rope and pulley. Thus the 
coiled brake is eminently an intermittent and instantaneous brake, just 
the opposite to the shoe brake; the two systems then, very happily, 























































353 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


complete each other. Consequently they are usually found associated 
with metal tyres in motor cars, and often enough conjugated, as in 
the Weidknecht omnibus, where they can be worked together or 
separately. In cars with indiarubber tyres, where the shoe is not 
suitable, a plate brake is generally placed on the differential shaft and 

a cord brake on each of the 
driving wheels. These brakes 
are worked by pedals which, 
previous to bringing the brake 
into operation, disconnect the 
motor in accordance with Act 6 
| of the French regulations. The 
defect in coiled brakes of acting 
only in forward motion of the 
car is serious, but by aid of de¬ 
vices the brakes can be made to 
tighten in both of the directions. 


Fig. 348 



Fig. 349. 





Fig. 350. 


Figs. 348 to 350. —Elevation and Plan of Jeantaed Brake. 


The^Jeantaud brake (Figs. 348 to 350), for instance, is double¬ 
acting. Two ropes are wound in opposite directions so as to corre¬ 
spond respectively to forward and backward motion of the car. One 
end of the ropes is fixed rigidly to the axle E of the car and on the 
other to two chapes, 0 and P, mounted on an axle, X, which can 
pivot in support A fixed upon the suspension spring. The rope C l , 
starting from the fastening piece S, winds from right to left. When 
the brake is to be applied whilst the car is moving forwards, the lever 
is brought from D to D 1 ; the latter entrains axle and chapes 0 P; 






























































































































BRAKES FOR AUTOMOBILES. 


359 


then P brings the cleats on rope C 1 against the drum, which rotates 
and completes the locking. If the car is running backwards the 
same motion of the lever tightens the cleats of rope C. 

The Hautier brake is shown by Fig. 351. The ends of the 
winding ropes are fixed to two bars, A H, B G. When the lever 
5 c is pulled so that the end b comes forward, the various parts move 
as indicated by the arrows, and the bars are applied against the fore 
edges of their slides; H acts as point of support and the brake locks 
for forward motion. It locks for back motion when end c of the 
lever b c is brought to the front. 



In the Renault brake (Fig. 352) the steel band, having inside a 
camelhair belt, is coiled one-and-two-third times around the steel 
drum; the band is illustrated by Fig. 353, in which the points 
marked a f are the same as B and C in Fig. 352. Chains B A, 
C A, unite the ends of the band to point A, which forms one with 
the axle S, all the locking stress being brought to bear upon A; 
the rods B D, C E, connect the same ends of the band to the 
little rods J D, K E. All these parts exist on both of the sides of the 
underframe. Rods J D,K E, are united with similar ones by the flat 
iron bars D E, the centres of which are united by powerful springs 
F G to a collar surrounding the axle. These springs draw the rods 
B D, C E, towards the rear, and thus remove to a distance the drum 
bands, which then do not exert friction strain upon the drums when 

















360 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


the brake has not to be locked. To brings them near the drums the 
pedal Q (see also plan, Fig. 354) is pressed. By working the levers shown 
the bands are pressed on the drums, and locking is produced. If the 
car is advancing, the wheels turn as indicated by the arrows /, and a 
component of friction is developed between the blades and drums 
such as Q, the chain B A stretches, lever H I assumes the position 
H 1 I 1 , chain C A tightens, and the locking strain is produced at A. 
Inversely, when the car is retreating, chain C A stretches and chain 
B A tightens, always bringing the locking strain on point A. Thus 



Fig. 352.— Renault Brake. Fig. 353 —Band of Renault Brake. Fig. 354.— Plan 

of Brake Pedal. 


the brake locks automatically in the required direction. Fig. 354 is 
a plan of the pedal and adjoining parts. 

A. Bollee also furnishes his cars with a double-acting brake. 
Jubel constructs his automatic circular entraining brake, which might 
be employed for automobiles, but which has been used for bicycles 
only as yet. La Societe Gondefer, Gros et Pichard has patented 
a brake for motor cycles and automobiles; it is lodged inside the 
differential gear case and acts directly on the driving wheel. 

The Krebs brake (Fig. 355) also is double-acting, but it does not 
work by winding ; instead, there is simple application of its jaws, and 
it is mounted on a drum, which it completely surrounds. When the 
rod T is pulled in the direction of the arrow, the two jaws B C, hinged 
at a to a piece A forming one with the underframe, are pressed against 













































BRAKES FOR AUTOMOBILES. 


361 


the drum. As soon as traction ceases to act on rod T, the spring R 
moves them away from it. 

The pawl and devil-drag are two devices either of which may be 
used when a car has not a brake that will prevent backward motion. 
The pawl is brought by the driver at the required moment into con¬ 
tact with a ratchet wheel fixed on the nave of the driving wheel. 
Sometimes the ratchet is placed on the differential box, though this is 
a bad arrangement, because if all the chains snapped the car would 



Fig. 355. — Krebs Double-acting Brakf. 


be deprived of all means of preventing backward movement. A devil 
drag is allowed to trail behind the car when ascending a gradient, and 
by propping itself on the ground it prevents all retrograding. Baron 
A. de Rothschild invented a convenient device to drop and lift the 
drag. But it is easy to forget to use the pawl or drag, or these may 
be so rarely employed in level districts that, at the critical moment, 
the device by which they are released may refuse to act; and for 
these reasons the use of a coiled brake acting for both directions is 
strongly advised. 


















362 



CHAPTER XVI. 

LUBRICATING DEVICES FOR AUTOMOBILES. 

Lubrication is of the greatest importance in the operation of an 
automobile, but it is difficult because the parts requiring to be lubri¬ 
cated are mostly out of sight and reach when the automobile is on 
the road. The parts to be lubricated are numerous, and include 
the motor cylinders, distributing and regulating mechanism, 
reversing and speed-changing gear, differential, pinions and wheels, 
chains, bearings, and in general all the parts exposed to friction. The 
valve-rod thrust bearings, cups of the coupling plates ; lever hinges, 
and steering gear must not be forgotten. 

The lubricants employed are somewhat varied, as their viscosity 
depends on the pressures the pieces have to support and the manner 
in which the lubricants are brought into contact with the surfaces. 
Their boiling and igniting points must be at a temperature 
higher than that of the parts to be lubricated; this has special 
reference to petrol motor cylinders and to super-heated steam motors, 
because if the lubricant burns and decomposes it may cause the 
motor to wedge. 

On the other hand, lubricants must not freeze in winter. A 
practical method of decreasing the freezing point of lubricating oil is 
to add to it a little petroleum, one part to ten, when the temperature 
is near freezing point, and a little more when the temperature is much 
lower. The lubricant should be as stable as possible, and this stability 
is connected closely with its chemical qualities—acidity, oxidability, 
etc. Consequently vegetable oils more or less siccative are not 
desirable. Mineral oils are more neutral than others and do not 
attack the metals they lubricate. 

A perfect acquaintance on the part of the user with the qualities 
of the various lubricants would be very valuable, as it would 
enable the most suitable for each particular case to be selected. 
Superficial examination can enable a practical person to form an idea 
of the consistency of oil, but he cannot say whether the oil will be 
suitable at the various temperatures of the mechanism it is to 


LUBRICATING DEVICES FOR AUTOMOBILES. 


363 


lubricate. A. Chenevier, director of the laboratory of the Chemins cle 
Fer du Midi, has invented an instrument by aid of which a diagram 
representing the degrees of fluidity can be constructed for an oil at 
various degrees of temperature to the maximum (200° C. or 392° F.) 
it has to undergo in a high-pressure steam cylinder, say of a railway 
locomotive. This, however, would be insufficient for petrol motors, 
and as the matter is so important it would be a good thing to test 
automobile lubricating oils as Chenevier did those employed for 
railway vehicles. 

Melted tallow chiefly is employed for lubricating chains; a 
consistent grease for pinions, chain wheels and bearings; animal oil, 
as far as possible neat’s-foot oil, for steam cylinders, and fluid oils for 
petrol motor cylinders, for which also mineral oils or oleonaphthas are 
much employed, as they boil only above 300° C. (572° F.). At the 
present time oleonaphthas are made which are most varied in aspect 
and properties, from fluid oils to consistent grease like tallow. They 
alone are employed for the motor frame and cylinders, and they 
also can be used for distributing mechanism, toothed gear, and hinges. 

The methods of applying lubricants vary. Chains are dipped into 
melted tallow and put into their places when the grease has cooled, 
though sometimes they are oiled while in position by aid of a brush 
or oil can. Bearings, bevel wheels, hinges, and parts having oil holes 
generally are fed Avith a can. Pinions, chain wheels, and exposed 
gear are coated with consistent grease by aid of a brush and 
sometimes with thick grease made hot. Patent wheel boxes have a 
small quantity of oil poured into them. The parts enclosed in gear 
cases (cranks, speed-changing gear, and differential) are lubricated 
automatically by simply Avorking in oil, Avliicli merely requires to be 
replenished from time to time. These systems of lubrication are very 
effective, the last especially, and are exceedingly simple. Generally, 
inexperienced motorists lubricate the motor a great deal too much. 
To form an idea of Avhat is necessary, it may be said that a 500 h.p. 
steam engine is lubricated sufficiently by one drop of oil per minute; 
whilst a petrol motor, like that for automobiles, must not have more 
than six to eight drops per minute. Excess of lubricant in a petrol 
motor cylinder is injurious, because it disturbs the composition of the 
carburetted mixture and deprives the explosion of part of its force. 

The modes of lubricating deserving greater attention are those 
Avhich, instead of supplying at one time sufficient lubricant to last for 


364 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


a more or less long period, supply it continuously and precisely as it 
is required. Lubricators of this type must be sure in spite of the 
vibrations of the car, variations of temperature, and the greater or less 
fluidity of the oil. They must not supply an excess, so that oil is 
spilled, and they must allow of being regulated independently of each 
other. It must be easy to stop and start them with the motor, or at 
least with the car, or, what is better, they must stop and start auto¬ 
matically with the motor and car. It is doubtful whether one 
apparatus possesses all these qualifications. 



Lubricators can be divided into two chief classes, according as 
they are based upon the natural working of physical phenomena 
(gravity, condensation of steam, suction ot pistons), or are worked 
mechanically. 

Physical lubricators first will be described. Those with falling 
drops, as a rule, are not reliable, unless at each instant their working 
is observable by the fall of a drop of oil into a glass tube. 

The Hochgesand oleopolymeter (Figs. 356 and 357) is constituted 
by a bronze box 10 cm. x 5 cm. (3’9 in. x 1-9 in.), the width being 
varied according to the number of feeds required, so as to contain 
150 g. (5 3 oz.) of oil per feed. Each of them is regulated separately 
by a rod with cone-shaped end resting on a milled nut by means of a 
hinged button. When this button is fiat, feeding is stopped; and 

























































































LUBRICATING DEVICES FOR AUTOMOBILES. 


365 


when raised the oil escapes in a quantity regulated by the position of 
the milled nut. W hen ihe rod is raised the oil flows copiously, so as 
to quickly fill the pipes at the time of starting. The milled nut is pro¬ 
longed ly a dipping tube, in which a spring supports the regulating 
rod. The air not being able to enter the box otherwise than by the 
space comprised between the regulating rod and the dipping tube, the 
flow of oil is maintained constant whatever the level of oil in the box. 
In fact, this flow depends solely upon the height comprised between the 
lower end of the tube and the end of the regulating rod. Each 
oil outlet has a light valve which prevents the oil being forced back. 



The Holt automatic lubricator for cylinders (Fig. 358) is based on 
the play of a diaphragm, A ; when the motor piston sucks the car- 
buretted mixture the diaphragm rises, and the valve S allows a 
certain amount of oil to pass and run into the cylinder. More¬ 
over this amount always is the same, because the vessel communicates 
with the air by hole 0, and the cylinder C is kept full by the liquid 
brought through tube T ; when the diaphragm rises, the liquid falls 
into the cylinder by groove R 

The Brunler continuous lubricator for cylinders works in the 
following way:—The hollow piston P (Fig. 359) has channels a b, in 
which is pipe t ; by means of this pipe the oil or grease under pressure 
reaches the groove r covered by a perforated band of metal p : these 
perforations distribute oil over all the circumference of the piston. A 
current of water flows to the inside of the piston through the channels 






































































366 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


a b, and after having cooled it and the lubricant, it escapes through 
channel d. This lubricator is certainly combined so as to bring the 
oil to the points where needed ; but perhaps obstruction of the tube 
is to be feared. 

Of lubricators with rising drops, the Consolin apparatus is an 



Fig. 359. —Bkunler Lubricator. 


instance. It is employed with steam, and is based upon condensation 
of the steam below the oil. Most physical lubricators have the 
inconvenience of not stopping with the motor, so that unless their 
working is interrupted the oil continues to flow uselessly. 

The simplest of non-automatic mechanical lubricators is the hand¬ 
worked apparatus which is within reach of the driver, who works it 
from time to time during a journey. It is very reliable, and many 
good constructors employ it to lubricate the cylinder. 

















































































LUBRICATING DEVICES FOR AUTOMOBILES. 367 

Of automatic mechanical lubricators working by compression, the 
Mollerup lubricator is a type. It is employed for steam cylinders, 
but will not be described here, as it differs only slightly from the 
Terminus lubricator (see below), in which the pawl and ratchet, which 
wears very rapidly and makes a noise, are replaced by another device; 
the Terminus is preferred to it, because it is not so heavy, and more 
precisely regulated for the amount of oil to be fed. 



Fig. 360. —Drevdal Termini's Lukricator. 

The Drevdal Terminus lubricator is shown by Fig. 360. A is a 
cylinder filled with oil, in which moves piston D, mounted in a movable 
nut on the screw E; this screw turns under the action of the spiral 
gear wheel G, which is driven by an endless screw upon an extension 
of which the driving wheel I is keyed. This wheel, which occupies 
the place of the Mollerup ratchet, has a projecting cordon on each face, 
upon which the dog L bites. Iv is a rod forming the end of a chape 
mounted on the radius of the wheel; 0 is a slide piece connected 
with a little rod which receives slight motion (2 cm. to 3 cm; -78 in. 

















































368 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


to 1*18 in.) from the machine. The oil driven away by fall of the 
piston is conveyed to the point to be lubricated by a small copper tube 
with a retaining valve to keep it full when the apparatus is at rest. 
The type holding 300 g. (10'58 oz.) of oil, used on the Scotte cars, 
enables a journey of 130 km. (80'7 miles) to be made without a new 
supply. For lighter cars an aluminium apparatus can be had to 
contain from 50 g. to 100 g. (T76 oz. to 35 oz.). 



Fig. 361. —Drevdal Oleopump. 


Some automatic mechanical lubricators work by suction and 
forcing. In this class are found first the pumps directly connected 
with a part of the machine without reduction of motion, a fact which 
limits their employment to machines of low rates of speed ; secondly, 
some apparatus is rather more complicated. 

The Drevdal oleopump is shown by Fig. 361. In the pump barrel 
A, kept full of oil by communication with the vessel H, there is a 
piston B, which descends under the action of the double cam C, 
mounted on the shaft D, and rises by the action of the spring to be 
seen below. This upward movement, which causes suction of the oil, 














































































































LUBRICATING DEVICES FOR AUTOMOBILES. 


369 


takes place abruptly twice per revolution, and the descending motion, 
which forces, is almost continuous. The cone G acts as a slide valve, 
bringing the pump barrel alternately into communication with the 
od tank and the oil distributing pipe. Shaft D is driven bv a ratchet 



wheel under the action of the pawl F fixed on lever I, which is given 
a slight movement by the motor. The delivery is regulated by 
milled nut K. The oleopump is employed to lubricate petrol 
cylinders, and it can be constructed with several force pipes. 

In the Bourdon multiple lubricator (Fig. 362) a shaft M passes 
through the top part of the receptacle B and is set in motion by a 
ratchet wheel, a pawl, and a lever not shown in Fig. 362, but 
Y 




















































































































































370 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


resembling those of the Drevdal oleopump. Shaft M carries an 
eccentric, which is caught by the fork F, which thus receives a 
vertical alternating motion. On the lower branch of this fork as 
many pistons are screwed as there are parts to be lubricated, and each 
of them moves in a pump barrel C containing an orifice through 
which the oil is sucked from the tank by the piston; also, each is 
furnished with a jacket which, when the piston descends, prevents all 
back flow of oil to tank. As the useful effect begins at the instant 
when this jacket covers the orifice, it can be understood how the 
delivery of the pump can be made to vary by screwing the rod T 
more or less into fork F. The forced oil is conveyed by the pipe b 
to the point to be lubricated. H is a retaining valve which prevents 
the pipe being emptied. 

The Henry Hamelle multiple lubricator (Fig. 363) lias its 
mechanism in a rectangular case, which at the lower part con¬ 
tains the oil delivery pipes, each of which is connected with a 
pump N, K, whose barrel N has a stamped leather at - the top and a 
force valve P at the lower part. Piston K has a cross-head driven by 
a spring which regulates its upward stroke. The oil enters the pump 
through the wire gauze strainer surrounding the piston K. The latter 
is driven downwards to force the oil by lever H, worked by crank E 
mounted on shaft E; the shaft is itself governed by the motor by aid 
of toothed wheel C, the endless screw B, and pulley A; in the groove 
of the pulley is placed an endless cord. The delivery of each pump 
is regulated by the screw which passes through lever H; when 
screwed down as tightly as possible there is a maximum delivery. 
The position of this screw can, by aid of an ingenious device, be 
regulated to one-sixth of a turn. 

O 


CHAPTER XVII. 

STEAM AUTOMOBILE CARRIAGES. 

The plan or general arrangement of a steam carriage should be 
understood easily after reading the previous chapters. The boiler 
and. steam motor usually are placed close together in front of the 
vehicle under the eye of the. attendant; sometimes they are 
separated, and then the boiler is in the rear with the attendant The 
coke bunlver is within the reach of the attendant, and the water tank 
is hidden under the passengers’ seats or under the frame of the car 
an air condenser generally being on the roof. There is a toothed 
transmission gear with at least two changes of speed and a differential 
to assure independence of the driving wheels in turning corners. 
Endless chains or a hinged axle transmit motion to the wheels; there 
is no reversing gear retrograde motion being obtained by reversing 
the motor. A brake acting directly on the wheels suffices, because the 
reversal ot the motor is reckoned as one of the brakes; there is no 
special device to prevent running backwards. Two axles, one with 
two pivots or a pin, assure steerage, there is an underframe and a 
body, transmission and lubricating apparatus. And now omnibuses, 
tractors, and lurries will be treated in detail. 

Amedee Bollee, to whom are due many ingenious inventions 
connected with automobiles, invented the first really practical steam 
car. In 1873 he ran the Obeissante —a similar vehicle to La 
Nouvelle, constructed in 1880—which won honourable mention 
even as late as 1895 at the Paris-Bordeaux trials, being the ninth 
arrival and the only steam car. La Nouvelle is an omnibus of the 
ordinary form having in front a large platform to carry the Field 
boiler (p. 37) and the motor, with inclined cylinders, already described 
(see p. 64). The rear driving axle, with a differential, is chain-driven 
by the motor, and steerage is operated by aid of the Bollee type 
fore-axle. A ith the driver, the motor attendant, and eight passengers 
it weighs 4,600 kg. (90 cwt. 40 lb.), and runs at a speed per hour 
of 28 km. (17-4 miles), exceptionally 42 km. (26 miles). Since 1883 
the Bollee firm has not built steam cars. 

Y 2 



372 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


The de Dion-Bouton omnibus (Fig. 364) has a closed body, and seats 
for twelve or fourteen passengers; the boiler platform in front also 
carries the motor and two attendants, and the rear platform accommo¬ 
dates four passengers standing, whilst overhead is a gallery to carry 
40 kg. (88 lb.) of luggage per passenger. The boiler and 25 h.p. motor 
already have been described (see pp. 40 and 74). The piston rod ends 
are connected to the crank pins of two fly wheels whose shaft carries 
two speed-changing pinions, which can be brought successively into 



contact with those mounted on a second shaft; this also has a 
toothed wheel gearing with that of the differential. The differential 
is on a third shaft. The parts of this transmission are in a gear case, 
which also acts as a frame and assures efficient lubrication. The two 
ends of the third shaft carry forged steel boxes which unite it with 
the rods of the universal joint of the hinged axle driving the car 
wheels by the system already described. The journals of the driven 
wheels form an angle of 5° with the horizontal, and the wheels, which 
are loose around the journals, have metal naves and wooden spokes 
and are slightly dished. Their exterior diameter is 1 m. (39%37 in.). 
The pivotted fore wheels are only 80 cm. (31'49 in.) in diameter, and 
are moved by hinged rods and a straight steering bar; all the wheels 
have iron tyres. A Lemoine steel rope brake is mounted on the 
































373 


STEAM AUTOMOBILE CARRIAGES . 

dii\ing wheel naves, and a coil brake on the universal joint axle. 

an gle-iion under frame carries the motor case below between the 
two axles, and the water tanks are hidden under the seats inside; the 
underpart of the driver’s seat contains a drawer for accessories; the 
automatic cylinder-lubricator, the coke bunker, and the oil tank are 
m front of the car. The width, including all projecting parts, is 2 m- 
(6 ft. 6-7 in.); the wheel base is 31 m. (10 ft. 2 in.); the total length 
is 6*35 m. (20 ft. 9*8 in.); the weight ready for the road is 6,640 kg. 
(130 cwt. 78 lb.), the useful load being 1,600 kg. (31 cwt. 54 lb.). The 
speed is from 14 km. to 18 km. (87 miles to 1118 miles) per hour, 


K 


-- - _ 

~ — — — — — — — — 5 » 

Fig. 365. —De Dion-Bouton Steam Tkactor. 



with a possibility of 20 km. (12 4 miles) per hour on the level per 600 
revolutions of the motor per minute. During the 1897 trials the 
weight was only 6,160 kg. (121 cwt. 28 lb.), the useful load having 
been reduced to 1,120 kg. (22 cwt.). According to the constructors, 
the consumption for the speed of 18 km. per hour is 2 kg. (4'4 lb.) of 
coke and 12 1. (2112 pts.) of water per km. (-62 mile); and 15 kg. 
(3*3 lb.) of coke and 9 1. (15-84 pts.) of water per horse-power hour. At 
this rate the omnibus can travel 40 km. (24-8 miles) without new 
supplies. 

The de Dion-Bouton tractor (Fig. 365) has the same type of boiler 
as the omnibus (Fig. 364), the motor being of 35 h.p. (see p. 7 4). The 
system of transmission also is the same, but there is a single rate of speed 
a coiled brake on the motor fly-wheels, and a screw brake with shoes on 
the wheel tyres. The width of the vehicle is 2 m. (6 ft. 67 in.); the 
wheel base is 21 m. (6 ft. 10*6 in.); the total length is 3*8 m. 




















































































THE AUTOMOBILE. 


on a 

o/4 

(12 ft. 5 5 in.); the weight is 4,140 kg. (81 cwt. 36 lb.) ready for the 
road. In the rear of the tractor is the crown for coupling the vehicle 
to be hauled, which may be of any description but with only one axle, 
so that its weight will assist adherence. At the 1897 trials the 
hauled vehicle was a Pauline brake for 24 passengers, weighing 
5,770 kg. (113 cwt. 38 lb.); the distance of the rear axle from tlie pivot 
of the fore-carriage was 4 25 m. (13 ft. 11 in.). The vehicle must be 
coupled to the tractor in such a way as to allow of part of the load of 
the first being borne by the second. In the de Dion-Bouton tractor 
the crown and fore-carriage pivot are in the rear supported by springs, 
but in some English tractors the crown is placed directly over the 
rear axle of the tractor and a hinge enables vertical oscillations which 
combine with the horizontal displacements around the pivot so as t 
give the two parts of the vehicle a sufficient independence. Con¬ 
sumption at a speed of 14 km. (8‘7 miles) per hour was 4 kg. (8*8 lb.) 
of coke and 20 1. (35*2 pts.) of water per km. (-62 mile), P5 kg 
(33 lb.) of coke and 7 1. (123 pts.) of water per horse-power hour. The 
omnibus can travel 25 km. (15'5 miles) without new supplies. In 
Fig. 365,1 is the motor; 2, boiler; 3, water tank, forming seat; 4, coke 
box; 5, steam valve; 6, steerage; 7, reversing gear; 8, hand brake; 9, 
handle for starting; 10, water circulation pump;. 11, pedal brake; 
12, driving wheels ; 13, steering wheels ; and 14, underframe. 

The Scotte omnibus (Figs. 366 to 368) has accommodation for 10 
passengers inside, two on platform, and their luggage on the roof. The 
boiler and motor described on pp. 38 and 64 are in front of car. The 
driving shaft transmits motion to an auxiliary shaft placed below by 
aid of one or other of the two systems of speed-changing pinions. The 
auxiliary shaft drives, with a chain, the differential shaft, which in 
turn drives the rear wheels by two chains. The wooden wheels, witli 
metal naves and tyres, are 90 cm. (35*4 in.) in diameter at the rear 
and 77 cm. (30 3 in.) in front, the tyres being 100 mm. and 70 mm. 
(3'93 in. and 2*75 in.) wide respectively. The journals of the pivotted 
fore wheels form one with an arm united by a horizontal connecting 
rod, receiving motion from two rods which are hinged to it and to a 
nut moving along a horizontal screw fixed to the fore axle. This 
screw turns under the action of vertical shaft formed of two parts 
telescoping each other; motion is given by a hand steering wheel 
having an inclined shaft. The car can turn in a circle of 3 5 m. 
(about 11*5 ft.) radius. The coiled brake is worked by a pedal on the 


STEAM AUTOMOBILE CARRIAGES. 375 

differential shaft, and a hand brake acts on the tyres by metal shoes. 
A metal case, easily removed for inspection of the mechanism, some¬ 
what protects the motor from dust and prevents spilling of oil; 
lubrication is assured by a multiple delivery oleometer. Shafts and 
t ansmission ^ear are above the underframe. The water tanks are 
under the seats, the drawer for accessories under the attendant’s seat, 
and the coke bunker is in the front of the platform. The width is 



Iff m. (5 ft. 6'9 in.), wheel base 2-85 m. (9 ft. 4-2 in.), weight ready for 
the road 6,450 kg. (126 cwt. 78 lb.), including 1,200 kg. (23 cwt. 64 lb.) 
of useful load; speed 14 km. (6ff miles) per hour on a level and 
7 km. (434 miles) on steep rising gradients. With the 100 kg. 
(220 lb.) of coke generally carried, the car can run about two hours. 
At the Versailles 1897 trials this omnibus, at a commercial speed of 
from 10‘5 km. to 11 km. (6'5 to 6‘8 miles), consumed per useful 
kilometric ton 31 kg. (6*8 lb.) of coke and 17'05 1. (30 pts.) of water. 

The Scotte hauling car is similar to the preceding, with these 
differences—that it can carry only eleven passengers, and there is a 











































































































































































































































































376 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


larger boiler; the bore of motor cylinder is 115 mm. (452 in.), piston 
stroke 120 mm. (472 in.), power 16 h.p. at 400 revolutions, and 
weight 300 kg. (660 lb.), and the lengths, widths, and weights are slightly 
greater than in the preceding. At the rear it has a fork, into the 
branches of which a vertical rod passes and is caught by a ring fixed 
to the front of the pole of the hauled vehicle. The fore-carriage of 
the latter is of the ordinary kind with pivot. There are two com¬ 
partments—one for parcels, and the other in the rear for fifteen 
passengers; the length is 475 m. (15 ft. 7 in.), of which 175 m. 
(3 ft. 9'2 in.) projects beyond the axles; it weighs 3 tons, including 
1*3 tons of useful load. The speed of the train is 12 km. (7*45 miles) 
per hour on a level, and 6 km. (3 7 miles) on steep rising gradients. 
The supplies of 200 kg. (4401b.) of coke and 600 1. (132 gal.) of water 
give a four-hour run. 

The Scotte hauling van is constructed to carry 2*5 tons and haul a 
dray carrying 17 tons. It differs from the hauling car by its rear 
part, an open side cart with very capacious water tanks under the 
floor. The total length and the diameters of the wheels are some¬ 
what less ; the weight is greater, being 8'22 tons. It runs at the rate 
of 10 km. (6-2 miles) per hour on a level, and 5 km. (31 miles) on 
steep rising gradients ; the dray hauled may be of any form. 

The Weidknecht omnibus (Figs. 369 and 370) has twelve seats 
inside and four places on platform, and can carry 500 kg. (1,100 lb.) of 
luggage on the roof. The boiler and motor are described on pp. 43 
and 64. Lubrication is assured by Mollerup apparatus for cylinders and 
by an eight-feed lubricator for the shafts and friction parts. The 
driving shaft carnes loose on it two pinions, which can gear with the 
toothed wheel of the differential. Motion is transmitted from this 
intermediary shaft to the wheels by endless chains. The wheels are 
wooden with bronze naves and patent boxes ; the front driving wheels 
are 1 4m. (4 ft. i m.) m diameter, and the rear steering wheels are 
1 1 m. (3 ft. i 3 in.). The metal tyres are 90 mm and 95 mm. (3'54 in. 
and 3 74 in.) wide respectively. The journals of the steering wheels, 
which alone are set, are each forged on with a vertical guide axis in 
the axle chapes and connected by a rod upon which a lever acts; the 
vertical axis of this lever is governed by a rack moved bv a horizontal 
fly wheel. The driving wheels in front have an almost constant over¬ 
load whether the car is empty or not. The rear steering wheels give 
easy guidance, though it is difficult to start near curb-stones.' A 


STEAM AUTOMOBILE CARRIAGES. 


377 


Lemoine collar brake, controlled by a pedal, acts on a pulley which 
forms one with the axle of the driving wheels. A screw brake worked 
by hand presses the shoes on the tyres of the driving wheels. These 
two brakes can be worked together or separately. The car under- 
frame is formed by a lj iron placed on edge, firmly intertied and 
resting at the rear on the axle, and is cranked to give play to the 



Fios. 369 and 370. —Elevation and Plan of Weidknecht Steam Omnibus. 


steering wheels. Boiler, water tank, and all the mechanism are fixed 
to it; the fore axle is suspended to it by means of a regulatable 
support, and in the rear the body rests on the three blade springs, 
two of which are longitudinal on the axle and one transversal con¬ 
nected to the first by clips; in front the body rests on spiral springs. 
The floor has a foot-warmer, heated by exhaust steam. The width 
is 2-2(3 m. (7 ft. 5 in.), wheel base 24 m. (7 ft. 10 5 in.), and length 
5 52 m. (18 ft. 13 in.). Total weight is 7 tons, in which is 410 kg. 
(902 lb.) of water 60 kg. (132 lb.) of fuel, and 1*6 tons of useful load. 

































































































































































































































378 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


With 350 revolutions of the motor the speed is 7*5 km. (465 miles) or 
15 km. (9'3 miles) per hour; by varying the pressure of the steam 
admitted at the slide valve and cut off, any speed per hour between 
4 km. and 20 km. (2*48 miles and 12'4 miles) can be obtained. Fully 
loaded, the consumption per car-kilometre is, on a bad road, 375 kg. 
(8*25 lb.) of coke and 26 1. (457 pints) of water, and on a good road 
3 kg. (6‘G lb.) of coke and 20 1. (352 pints) of water, these being 
equivalent to journeys of 16 km. and 20 km. (9‘9 miles and 12 4 miles) 
without new supplies. The attendant can manage the car alone 
provided that he places a box of coke in the automatic changer about 
every 4 km. (2’48 miles). The car has a coupling at the back for 
hauling. 

The Serpollet omnibus with fifteen passengers which took part in the 
1898 heavy vehicles trials (Figs. 371 and 372) has a boiler placed on the 
fore-carriage, behind the driver’s seat, with a heating surface of 8 m. 2 
(86 sq. ft. 19 sq. in.) and 900 kg. (1,980 lb.) in weight, heated with petrol 
spirit or petroleum. The motor has two cylinders, 12 cm. (474 in.) in 
bore, the piston stroke being 10 cm. (3‘9 in.) ; it weighs 270 kg. 
(594 lb.), normally develops 25 h.p., and exceptionally 40 h.p.; it is 
placed under the fore-carriage behind the driving wheels, and a con¬ 
denser is on the roof. Transmission is operated by an intermediary 
axle with two changes of speed by toothed gear. The speed is 16 km. 
(9*93 miles) per hour. As illustrated by Figs. 371 and 372 on p. 379, 
a is the steering bar; b, lever for reversing and stopping; i, brake 
pedal; /, lever of the pump which feeds water for starting; j, feed water 
donkey engine; h, tank containing petrol spirit or petroleum under 
pressure to feed the burners. 

The Compagnie Generale des Automobiles omnibus is similar to that 
with thirty places built by the Compagnie Generale de Paris. It has a 
Valentin boiler (p. 60) and an epicycloidal rotary motor (p. 79); the 
driving shaft, normally performing 600 revolutions per minute, has a 
friction coupling, and drives by toothed gear the differential shaft, which 
in turn drives the car wheels, 1-5 m. (4 ft. 11 in.) in diameter, by means 
of chains. The diameter of the steering wheels in the rear is only 
1 m. (3 ft. 3*3 in.). Boiler and motor are placed in front on a plat¬ 
form ; the total length of the car is 6’6 m. (21 ft. 7-8 in.). 

The Motor Omnibus Syndicate’s omnibus has ten inside seats 
and fifteen outside ones, and is built on the Gillett system, the boiler 
(p. 48) and motor (p. 74) being by the same engineer. The motion is trans- 


STEAM AUTOMOBILE CARRIAGES. 


379 


mitted from the driving to the differential shaft by Renolds chains, 
which give two speeds, and from the latter to the wheels also by chains. 
Phosphor bronze was employed in this omnibus for wheel naves, 
bearings, bushings, etc. The water supply suffices for a journey of 
40 km. (24'8 miles), during the whole of which a speed of 17.69 km. 
(11 miles) per hour can be maintained. 



Fio-s. 371 and 372. —Elevation and Plan of Serpollet Steam Omnibus. 


A steam omnibus is made by Turgan and Foy, who until a 
year or so ago were devoted to the manufacture of petrol motors 
and vehicles. This omnibus has a strong underframe carried by 
springs upon the front and rear axles. There is a cab in front, 
and between this and the main body of the car is placed the vertical 
boiler (p. 46), having a heating surface of 10 m. 2 (107h sq. ft.), a 

height of 1*2 m. (47*2 in.), a breadth of 1*2 m., and a depth of 

*8 m. (31'5 in.), its weight being about 680 kg. (13*4 cwt.). It can 
supply 435 kg. (960 lb.) of steam, and even 580 kg. (1,280 lb.), with 

forced draught at a pressure of 15 kg. per cm. 2 (213 lb. per sq. in.), 



















































































































































































380 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


and its efficiency is given at 6 kg. of steam per 1 kg. of coal. 
Each ot the rear wheels is chain-driven for a separate compound 
motor, whose cylinders respectively are 90 mm. (3‘54 in.) and 
170 mm. (67 in.), by 120 mm. (4*7 in.) piston stroke; the normal 
speed is 600 revolutions per minute. There are two feed pumps, 
whilst on the root is a large condenser. The complete vehicle 
weighs about 325 tons; its total length is 4*2 m. (1378 ft.), and 
the wheel base is 2 45 m. (8 ft.). Trials gave a maximum speed 
of 222 km. (13*8 miles) per hour, and a coal consumption of nearly 
1 kg. (2-2 lb.) per minute. At a speed of 16*5 km. (10-45 miles) 
per hour it ascended a T5 km. (-93 mile) gradient of 7 per cent. 
Also it climbed a 142 per cent, gradient with a load of 1,500 kg. 
(295 cwt.). 


Ihe Le Blant tractor (Fig. 373) is intended to haul an omnibus 
carrying 15 to 20 passengers or a van carrying 5 to 6 tons. It 
has a boiler (p. 59) with a heating surface of 15 m. 2 (161 sq.ft. 66 sq. in.) 
and a 20 to 30 h.p. motor (p. 64). The latter is placed horizontally above 
the underframe, between the two axles, and drives the rear axle by 
aid of a pinion mounted at the crank shaft, an endless chain and a 
toothed wheel forming one with the differential. The steerage is 
operated by a pivotted fore-carriage, whose lower hoop is toothed for 
one-third of its circumference and worked by an endless screw. The 
under frame is of U-steel, assembled by means of squares and angle 
plates rivetted hot, and it rests on the axles by springs placed outside 
the wheels as with waggons; the small diameter of the wheels and 
the general structure have somewhat the appearance of a goods van. 
The weight of the tractor, ready for the road, is 7-5 tons, including 
650 kg. (1,4301b.) of water and 250 kg. (5501b.) ot coke; necessarily 
the weight is considerable, because part of it is used to increase the 
adhesion. The hauled car has not a single axle like that coupled to 
the de Dion-Bouton tractor; it has the shape, according to the 
circumstances, of a goods van or a tramcar. Carrying 20 passengers 
it weighs 47 tons, and the tractor hauls it at the rate of from 10 km' 
to 30 km. (6-2 miles to 18’6 miles) per hour. Le Blant has also con¬ 
structed a less heavy tractor than the preceding, weiffiiino- readv for 
the road, 4 tons; it is driven by a motor of 15 to 20 h.p., and 
ascended the gradient ot Grand-Jonc at Issy at the rate of about 

15 km. (9-3 miles) per hour, hauling an omnibus which seated 15 
persons. 


STEAM AUTOMOBILE CARRIAGES. 


381 


Finally, Le Blant constructs steam cars in the form of char-a- 
bancs. One with ten places, weighing 4-33 tons, won the third prize at 



the Concours de Petit Journal (Paris-Rouen, 1894); a more recent 
type of brake has twenty places, and (empty) weighs 7 tons. Le Blant 


/ 

















































































































































































382 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


invented the idea of furnishing these heavy steam cars with a steering 
rear-carriage similar to the fore-carriage, to facilitate turning, or even 
to avoid the terminal points in tramway systems. 

The Liquid Fuel Engineering Company (Lifu) built omnibuses of a 
rather peculiar shape for a Belgian company. At the back was a 
closed compartment with twelve seats, in the middle an open 
compartment with eight seats, and in front a seat for the driver 
and two passengers, total twenty-two seats, plus those of the motor 
attendant and driver; the boiler and engine were the same as those 
for the lurry described on p. 391. The speed was 19 308 km. (12 
miles) per hour on a level, and did not exceed 6436 km. (4 miles) on 
a rising gradient of 1 in 10. 

The tractor of Toward & Philipson, Newcastle, has a boiler (p. 61) with 
very thick drawn steel tubes carried in a steel cylindrical case, with a 
rectangular section and dome top; the tubes form three worm pipes 
in which the water is successively heated, vaporised, and superheated, 
the exhaust consequently being invisible. This boiler, fed auto¬ 
matically with coke or petroleum, was tested at 28 kg. per cm. 2 (398 lb. 
per sq. in.); it gives steam at 14 kg. per cm. 2 (199 lb. per sq. in.). 
The horizontal motor has two cylinders, 10 and 20 cm. (3 9 in. and 
7‘8 in.) in bore, the piston stroke being 15 cm. (5’9 in.) ; at 400 revolu¬ 
tions it gives 25 h.p. The driving shaft communicates motion to the 
differential shaft by toothed gearing, and the power is transmitted 
from this second shaft to the driving wheels by chains. The ratios of 
reduction, 6 and 3 to 1, give speeds of 6‘5 km. and 13 km. (4 miles 
and 8 miles) per hour. Of two brakes, one is a band brake worked bv a 
pedal and acting on the naves, the other with shoes worked by hand 
and acting on the tyres of the driving wheels. Steering is by screw 
and toothed wheel. The tractor carries enough water for a journey 
of 32 km. (19'8 miles), and coke for 96 km. (596 miles). Coupled to 
this tractor is a one-axle hind carriage of any type; it may be an 
omnibus with thirty seats, some inside and some out, like that running 
regularly from Newcastle to Sheffield, or it may be a dray carrying 
4 tons. 

Eight of the principal systems of heavy steam vehicles may be 
compared one with another as regards general arrangement by means 
of the diagrams, Figs. 374 to 379, which are from the Automotor 
Journal. Until just recently, steam cars on the English market were 
mostly of the heavy goods-delivery and haulage type, and it is 


383 




=r 




ftl 

y 





0 


B 

E 





Y 

ZZl 

F 


1 

!jL 


4 - 






































































































































































































































































































































































/ 

384 TllE AUTOMOBILE . 

interesting to note how eight of the most important builders have 
distributed the boiler, motor, gearing, tanks, condensers, etc. In all 
the systems illustrated, A denotes air fan; B, boiler; C, condenser; 
I), differential gear; E, engine; G, gearing; H, hot-water tank ; 0, 
oil tank ; S, steering Avheel; W, water tank ; and X, auxiliary engine. 
In all but one case the boiler is in front and above ; the exception is the 
Musker vehicle (Fig. 374), which has a horizontal boiler and a special 
fan or draught for the burner, placed transversly under the middle 
of the car; a funnel is not necessary. It is important to have the 
boiler and motor as near as possible to the main driving wheels, in 
every case the rear wheels, because though when loaded the weight is 
largely distributed over the driving wheels, yet when running light 
there may not be sufficient weight upon the driving wheels to 
produce tractive effort if the boiler and part of the motor are carried 
upon the steering wheels. The positions of the motors also form a 
point of difference. In the Thornycroft and Lifu systems (Fig. 375) 
and in the Musker systems (Fig. 374) the horizontal motor is in the 
middle and the main driving wheel is driven by means of toothed 
gearing. The Coulthard, Leyland (both of these are shown by Fig. 
376), and Clarkson and Capel systems (Fig. 377) have vertical motors 
whose motion is transmitted to the main driving wheel by chain 
gearing operating through a counter-shaft. The Bayley lurry 
(Fig. 378) has a vertical motor, and its motion is transmitted by a 
horizontal longitudinal shaft, which drives a counter-shaft by means 
of bevelled gearing, the counter-shaft driving the main driving wheel 
by a pinion and spur wheel. The Simpson and Bodman system 
(Fig. 379) has its pair of motors in a convenient and accessible position, 
and their weight, together with that of the gearing, tends to increase 
the tractive effort of the main driving wheels when running: light 
A further important point of difference is that the Musker, Leyland, 
Coulthard, and Clarkson and Capel vehicles have condensers, whereas 
in the Thornycroft, Lifu. Simpson and Bodman, and Bayley vehicles 
the superheated steam is relied on as being too hot to be visible when 
emitted. 

The Musker steam lurry shown in side elevation by Fig. 380, 
and in plan by Fig. 381, is constructed on a novel system, the 
object being to obtain automatic control of the mechanism. Its 
chief features are the manner of suspension of the propelling 
mechanism, the boiler, and an ingenious use of by - passes; the 


38E 


STEAM A UTOMOBILE OABBIAGES. 

driver’s duties consist solely of regulating the steam supply to the 
motors and of steering the vehicle. The whole of the machinery 
is carried on a separate underframe, which is suspended indepen¬ 
dently by springs from, and between, the front and rear axles. The 
flash boiler (see pp. 44 and 45) is heated by an oil burner (see p. 45), 
and the supply of petroleum, air and water is in fixed proportions, 



the feeds being regulated automatically by a mechanical stoker 
which takes the form primarily of a constantly running auxiliary 
engine, and secondarily of automatically working valves. Figs. 380 
and 381 show an experimental waggon, it having been converted from 
a horse - drawn waggon used in the Liverpool docks for loads ot 
between 6 and 7 tons. The wooden platform A measures 5T8 m 
by 1'98 m. (17 ft. by 6 ft. 6 in.), and on it is the driver’s seat B; the 
platform is carried upon the front and rear axles C by four strong 
springs D. The front wheels, 91-4 cm. (3 ft.) in diameter, and fitted 
z 
































































































































































































386 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


for steering on the Ackermann system (see Fig. 294, p. 317), are 
connected to the steering wheel E through the rods and screw F. 
The rear wheels, 99 cm. (3 ft. 3 in.) in diameter, are fitted with 
6%34 mm. (J in.) steel plates bolted to and recessed into the inside 
of the felloes. Driving chain wheels are bolted to these plates, so 
that the driving power is applied direct to the rims of the wheels* 



Flanges bolted to the naves prevent their bushes from working loose. 
All the wheels have tyres 12-7 cm. (5 in.) wide. All the machinery 
is fixed on an oak underframe G strengthened with thin iron plates 
and supported from the axies G by four bolts H provided with 
spiral springs J of a strength to suit the load. Fig. 330 shows the 
attachment of the platform to the front axle, the angle plates K 
being secured to the axle. The attachment to the rear axle is 
shown in detail by Figs. 382 and 383; the suspension bolts H are 
connected by a joint with the rods L, and the springs M are 





































































STEAM AUTOMOBILE CARRIAGES. 


387 


enclosed. The other letter references in these figures are the same 
as in Figs. 380 and 381, in which figures the boiler N is shown fixed 
across the underlrame; it has three tubular concentric coils, a liquid 
fuel burner being fixed to and forming a continuation of the boiler. 
The burner lies to the left-hand side of the underframe, and the feed- 
water (0) and steam (P) connections to the right-hand side. The 
mechanical stoker is indicated in Figs. 380 and 381 ; its parts are: 
a small auxiliary motor Q, supplied with steam from the boiler 
through pressure-reducing valves R and S; a centrifugal fan T 
driven by toothed gearing at a high rate of speed and delivering 
air to the burner; oscillating, valveless pumps U and Y driven 
by a half-speed shaft and supplying water and oil respectively to the 
boiler, the pump ports being opened and closed by the movement 
given them by the auxiliary motor; and an automatic throttle valve 
W, and a pressure device X. Yalves R and S are set to give 
pressures respectively of 7 kg. and 35 kg. per cm. 3 (100 lb. and 
50 lb. per sq. in.). The action of the parts forming the mechanical 
stoker is as follows:—When the motor Q is supplied with steam at 
3*5 kg. per cm. 2 (50 lb. per sq. in.) through the valve S only, it is 
barely possible to supply sufficient air, oil, and water to the boiler 
to maintain the necessary amount and pressure of steam required to 
make up for condensation, waste, and for its own consumption. As 
soon, however, as the boiler pressure begins to decrease, the pressure 
in the feed-water pipe and consequently in the pressure device X 
also decreases, and the throttle valve W then opens. In this way 
steam at a pressure of 7 kg. per cm. 2 (100 lb. per sq. in.) passes from 
the valve R to the auxiliary motor, and it then runs at a higher speed 
and delivers more fuel and water to the generator. Thus, under 
working conditions, the automatic valve W continually is regulating 
the speed of the auxiliary motor and thus keeping the boiler pressure 
constant, in spite of variations of load. Two constant, adjustable by¬ 
passes in the delivery pipes from the oil and water feed pumps allow 
a certain quantity of the feed to return to the respective supply tanks; 
also there is an automatically controlled by-pass in the steam-pipe 
supplying the auxiliary motor. The main motor Y has four 
cylinders, and makes 500 revolutions per minute, at which speed 
the waggon travels at 8 km. (5 miles) per hour. The normal working 
steam pressure is 176 kg. per cm. 2 (2501b. per sq. in.), and the steam 
is superheated to 3155° C. (600° F.). The oil tank Z in front of the 
z 2 


388 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


boiler holds one day’s supply, 1135 1. (25 gall.), and the water 
tanks Z X, holding 6501. (144 gall.), more than half a day’s supply, 
are fixed at the back. Lack of space prevents a fuller description 
here of what is a very interesting and important attempt at steam 
car construction on new lines; but it may be said that since the 
above experimental car was made the same makers have introduced 
their commercial type, little differing from the one here described. 
One type of Musker waggon uses coke fuel, and in this the automatic 
devices are retained partly, but an auxiliary motor is not used. 

The Thornycroft Steam Waggon Company, of Chiswick, had a 
tractor intended to haul a 5-ton dray; it had a Thornycroft boiler 
(p. 46), and the motor already described (p. 75). Two spiral gear wheels 
on the driving shaft can each gear with the differential wheel, thus 
giving ratios of reduction of 12 to 9 to 1. Renolds chains transmit 
power from the differential shaft to the toothed wheels of the rear 
driving wheels. The steam brake exerts a pressure of 2,280 kg. (5,016 
lb.) on the driving wheel naves, and screw brakes operate shoes on 
the tyres of the same wheels. Steel exclusively is employed for 
building this tractor, excepting the motor attendant’s cab, which is 
made of oak. The hauled dray, the platform of which is steel or wood 
(steel is preferable because it gives a lighter floor, without being too 
noisy during motion), has only two wheels. Its fore part rests on the 
rear of the tractor on a hinged steering ring, allowing vibrations in 
two vertical planes. The wheels of this dray have a screw brake. Its 
platform is 10 m.~ (10/*6 sq. ft.); the weight of the tractor and dray 
empty is 391 tons, and with water and fuel it is 4*32 tons. The 
loaded dray is hauled at a speed of 8 km. (4’97 miles) per hour on the 
level, and express speed is possible only when the dray is empty. The 
same company entered at the Liverpool trials of 1898 a steam lurry of 
2-5 tons useful load, with an available surface of 5*5 in. 2 (59-2 sq. ft.), 
and weighing slightly more than 2-8 tons empty. 

The Thornycroft Steam Waggon Company’s 7-ton lurry has a 
frame built of channel steel, and a platform built of oak and steel. 
The frame (see Figs. 384 and 385) is supported upon the rear axle 
by semi-elliptic springs, and is carried above the front axle by a 
single transverse spring. A special arrangement of horn plates 
ensures flexibility and a three point suspension, coupled with strength 
and rigidity in the necessary planes. The boiler is fixed to the 
framework just behind the front axle, and between it and the front 


STEAM AUTOMOBILE CARRIAGES. 389 

of the waggon a centrally arranged funnel K and a combined feed 
heater and exhaust silencer *i are placed. The boiler coyer and 



an adjustable door R in the ash pan serve for regulating the 
draught, the latter being controlled by a sliding rod in the floor 
on the left-hand side of the driver. A spark arrester is fixed in the 


































































































































































































390 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


funnel. To the right of the driver’s seat N is a reversing gear 
handle S mounted with the usual quadrant, and this has two for¬ 
ward notches corresponding with cut-offs of § and besides the 
intermediate and the reversed positions. There is a handle for 
regulating a by-pass on the delivery pipe from the force-pump 
through the feed heater to the boiler. The coke bunkers on each side 
of the boiler hold sufficient for an 80 km. (50-mile) run. Four cocks 
to which steam can be admitted from a single cock near the throttle 
valve on the boiler are fixed to the bunker on the right-hand side, 
and they distribute steam to either of the four following parts:— 
A water filter, for filling the tanks, steam blast for accelerating the 
raising of steam, a by-pass for admitting live steam to the low 
pressure cylinder, and a steam jet for cleaning the boiler tubes. 
The larger of the two water tanks is placed beneath the frame at the 
back of the vehicle, and the second one is on a higher level and gives 
a head of water both to the pump and to the injector. The two- 
cylinder compound motor A (p. 75) is fixed horizontally beneath the 
framework, and is completely cased. The exhaust steam, after passing 
through the feed-heater, is taken into the smoke box and discharged 
invisibly from the funnel. The transmission gear consists of two 
machine-cut pinions riding upon a square part of the motor shaft, 
and either of them may be made to engage with corresponding spur 
wheels C on the countershaft. The countershaft is divided into 
three pieces, C, D, and E, with special universal joints between them; 
and the portion carrying the spur wheels follows the motions of the 
motor and frame. The intermediate part serves as a flexible coupling 
between the first part and a third part, and allows of the remainder 
of the transmission gear following the movements of the rear axle. 
Power is transmitted from the countershaft to the differential gear F 
on the axle by a pair of double helical cast-steel pinions. The 
portion E of the countershaft is carried in a pair of brackets 
mounted about the rear axle and stayed by a link hinged to the 
underframe. This device is known as the Thornycroft patent bell 
crank drive. The rear wheels are driven from the differential gear 
through flexible drives, leaf springs being replaced by an arm carry¬ 
ing four helical springs in compression. The central member of the 
rear axle is carried through from end to end; on the left-hand side 
of the lurry, where it passes through the sleeve, driving the road 
wheel, it carries a kind of band brake, which normally rides freely 


STEAM AUTOMOBILE CARRIAGES. 


391 


about a drum, forming part o± the rear wheel. This brake can be 
caused to grip the drum and in this way lock the differential gear. 
Steering is on the Ackermann system, the inclined shaft and hand- 
wheel being illustrated. A second hand wheel L on a vertical shaft 
is connected through a screw and strong connecting rods to a pair of 
block brakes acting on the rear wheel tyres. Letter references in 
Figs. 384 and 385 not yet explained are B, crank-shaft; G, outside fly¬ 
wheel; H, pressure gauge; 0, water gauge; P, injector; and Q, 
throttle valve. 

The Liquid Fuel Engineering Company (Lifu) had a lurry carrying 
2 tons. The boiler (p. 47) and 25 h.p. motor (p. 75) are in front. A 
first longitudinal shaft, inclined and telescopic so as to compensate for 
the displacements due to suspension of the machine, receives and 
transmits motion by bevel gear. A second transversal shaft carries 
toothed pinions which gear interiorly with the wheels. A single ratio 
of reduction is 8 to 1. Two sand boxes facilitate starting on a slippery 
pavement. A pedal brake acts on the rear wheels. The underframe, 
made of soft steel with wooden wheels and bronze naves, carries two 
petroleum tanks each of 90 1. (19-8 gall.) capacity, and two water 
tanks holding 270 1. and 340 1. (59'4 gall, and 74'8 gall.). Empty, the 
vehicle weighs 2,425 kg. (47 cwt. 71 lb.). With 600 revolutions per 
minute the motor gives a speed of 13 km. (8 miles) per hour on a 
level, and 6 km. (37 miles) or a rising gradient of 1 in 10. This 
lurry took part in the Liverpool trials of 1898. 

The Coulthard steam lurry is shown in elevation by Fig. 386, in 
plan by Fig. 387, and in front elevation by Fig. 388. The frame is of 
channel steel and is supported on semi-elliptical springs fixed at their 
centres to the front and rear girder axles of cast steel. The vertical 
fire tube boiler is bolted by bearer bars to the main frame centrally 
behind the front axle. The foot-plate is below the level of the frame¬ 
work, and boiler is fired from beneath. The driver’s seat A is in 
front of and to the right-hand side of the boiler. (For particulars of 
the Coulthard boiler, see p. 36.) The water gauge B and steam 
gauge are in front of the boiler, and the steering wheel, on its vertical 
pillar, is immediately in front of the driver. To his right hand are 
two small levers working in quadrants, one regulating the reversing 
gear, and the other being connected to the throttle valve. On the 
feed pipes from an automatic force pump driven by the second 
motion shaft and of a steam pump fixed behind the driver, are safety 



392 


THE AUTOMOBILE 



i 




























































































































































































































































STEAM AUTOMOBILE CARRIAGES. 


393 


pattern check valves C and D. A large throttle valve is fixed upon 
the boiler directly behind the driver, and the steam jet also passes 
from the same place. The throttle valve regulates the flow of steam 
through a spiral and flexible steam pipe which communicates with a 
special distribution valve fixed to the motor casing. The motor, 
second motion shaft, and differential gear shaft, are all enclosed in an 
oil-tight casing, and are supported at three points, the one imme¬ 
diately over the back of the cylinders being a pivot, as shown at E, 
and the others being spherically mounted bearings F on the com¬ 
pensating gear shaft. The motor is illustrated by Figs. 48 and 49, 
p. 78. The steam regulator is a balanced valve, attached to the 
high pressure cylinder steam chest, and so arranged that the steam 
supply can be regulated quickly by the handle on the driver’s 
right hand. A combined feed water heater and exhaust silencer 
G is attached to the outer side of the low pressure cylinder- 
The crank shaft H is carried in two long bearings, together 
with the eccentrics, is made in one piece, and carries on its 
left-hand end a pinion J, which gears with a corresponding wheel 
K on a second motion shaft L ; a pair of unequal sized pinions 
M and N slide on a square on this shaft, and either of these 
may be caused to engage with corresponding wheels 0 and P 
upon the crown of the differential gear upon the shaft Q. The 
pinions M and N are operated by handle R behind the free position 
through the connecting links S. The feed pump T is so constructed 
that the stuffing box and valve boxes are easily accessible, but that 
the ram is not exposed to dust. The differential gear shaft Q alone 
projects through the casing; the compensating gear shaft and trans¬ 
mission gear are described on p. 281. The power is transmitted by 
Renolds silent chains from the chain wheels U to large wheels Y fixed 
to the felloes of the rear road wheels. Distance rods, which take the 
driving thrust, are pivoted to the back axle and to the compensating 
gear brackets. The large chain wheels are fitted with the Coulthard 
triangular drive, which is a device whereby the power is applied direct 
to the felloes instead of to the spokes. The reversing lever W is 
connected to the link motion gear by the rods X, and is provided 
with slots affording three different positions of cut-off in a forward 
direction and one intermediate position, as well as a reverse position. 
The water tank Y is beneath the frame at the back of the waggon, 
and is fitted with a water lifter Z. Two powerful double-acting band 


394 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


brakes, consisting of steel cables lined with hard wood blocks, are 
coiled round the brake drums on the back wheels, and are so arranged 
that both of the ends of the cable are tightened or released simul¬ 
taneously by the action of the brake handle a on the left-hand side 
of the driver. The connection between the handle and the brakes is 
made by means of the usual worm and worm wheel, and by a simple 
system of levers. The platform can be slid backwards on rollers, and 
is hinged at the back end in order to enable the motor and other 



parts to be examined. The artillery pattern wheels are fitted with 
cast steel hubs having bronze bushes, oak spokes, and English ash 
felloes. The steering gear is a modification of the Ackermann system, 
and is operated from the horizontal steering handle b in the ordinary 
manner. 

The Lancashire Steam Motor Company’s lurry (the Leyland) is 
shown by Figs. 389 and 390; it carries 4 tons useful load, has a com¬ 
pound stamp motor, its cylinders have bores of 75 mm. and 125 mm. 
(2-95 in. and 492 in.) respectively, and the common piston stroke is 
150 mm. (5’9 in.). At 500 revolutions per minute it gives 14 h.p. It 
is not reversible, and forward and backward motion of the vehicle are 
obtained by aid of a coupling gear. On some lurries there are two 
transmissions instead of one, the first by toothed gear and the second 

















































































STEAM AUTOMOBILE CARRIAGES. 


395 


by a chain, one of them being employed for forward motion and one 
for backward motion. It is not clear why a reversible motor is not 
employed. Renolds chains unite the first intermediary shaft with the 
differential shaft and the latter to the rear driving wheels. The pro¬ 
portions of reduction between the motor shaft and the axle are 8:134 
and 28:1. Two powerful brakes can stop the car in half its length, 
each of them being able to hold back the dray on a falling gradient of 


145 in 1,000. The underframe is 
steel and the wheels are wood. The 
floor gives an available surface of 
7‘25 m. 2 (78 sq. ft.); the weight 
empty is 2 91 tons. This lurry took 
part in the Liverpool 1898 trials. 

One type of omnibus built by 
the same company carries six pas¬ 
sengers inside and 500 kg. (1,100 lb.) 
of luggage on the roof, and is driven 
by a 6 h.p. motor. The consump¬ 
tion for 65 km. (40‘4 miles) is 3T8011. 

(7 gall.) of petroleum. 

Referring to the Leyland 4-ton 
lurry, shown in side and front eleva¬ 
tion respectively by Figs. 389 and 
390, its frame is built of channel steel, 
upon which is a platform having an 
available cargo area of 6'59 m. 2 (71 
sq. ft.). The framing is connected, 
through double plate springs, to the axletrees, which are of heavy 
section wood, and have at their ends iron shoes to which are attached 
the axles proper. The wheels are of wood and all the same size, 99 cm- 
(3 ft. 3 in.) in diameter, and the rear wheels have 12 7 cm. (5 in.) tyres, 
and sprockets for the driving chains are bolted to them. The fore 
wheels are pivoted in iron jaws, and steering is effected by worm wheel 
and connecting rods. Of the two brakes, one is a hanging brake acting 
on the rear wheels and worked by a worm and wheel arrangement 
from the starting platform, and the other is a band brake working on 
the transmission gearing. The vertical fire tube boiler (see p. 35) is 
placed on the fore platform to the left, and common petroleum is 
burnt under it,'the oil vapour supply being controlled by the Spurrier 



Fig. 390. —Front Elevation of 
Leyland Steam Lurry. 

























































































396 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


automatic valve. The petroleum tank is carried under the platform 
at the rear end and holds 90 1. (20 gall.), whilst the 227 1. (50 
gall.) water tank is situated midway under the framing. The 
14 brake-horse-power, two-stage compound motor runs at 400 revolu¬ 
tions per minute, and is fitted with a Pickering governor. In the 
roof of the cab, enclosing motor and boiler, is an air condenser 
consisting of indented brass pipes. As regards transmission, the 
motion of the main shaft is transmitted to an intermediate shaft by 
chain gearing and thence to the rear wheels, also by chains. The 
three speeds are 9*6 km., 5*6 km., 3 2 km. (6 miles, 3*5 miles, and 2 
miles) an hour respectively on ordinary good roads. The wheel base 
is 3 02 m. (9 ft. 11 in.), the gauge is 1*6 m. (5 ft. 3 in.), and the weight, 
light, is 2'85 tons. In Figs. 389 and 390, A indicates boiler; B, 
motor; C, water tank; and D, the feed pipe from it; E, drain tap; 
I, feed pump; G, oil tank; H, condensers on roof; J, hand steering 
wheel; K, brake wheel; L, starting and band brake lever; M, band 
brake shaft; N”, steering gear ; and O, clutch levers. 

The following particulars are given of a later type—a 5-ton Leyland 
lurry—made by the Lancashire Steam Motor Company. The channel 
steel frame is carried upon the girder axles by semi-elliptical springs, 
and the military type wheels have steel naves, oak. spokes, and ash 
felloes. The vertical fire tube boiler is in front, the water tank being 
beneath the frame at the other end. The boiler tubes are of tough 
seamless copper, and a fusible plug is fitted in the crown plate of the 
fire-box.. The funnel passes out from the top of the boiler in front of 
the stoking hole. Immediately behind the boiler is the throttle valve, 
to the left of this a Klinger safety water gauge, and to the right a steam 
gauge. The safety valve, which blows off into the water tank at a 
pressure of 14*27 kg. per cm. 2 (2301b. per sq. in.), is placed on the 
right-hand side of the boiler, just in front of the driver. The bunkers 
carry sufficient fuel for a day’s work, and are placed on each side of 
the boiler. An automatic feed pump is driven off the differential 
gear shaft, and a by-pass, which returns more or less of the feed to 
the supply tank, is connected with a small hand-wheel on the seat to 
the right of the driver. A small steam pump under the left side of 
the seat can be used as an auxiliary feed if required. The motor, 
fixed horizontally underneath the frame, is compound, having one 
high pressure cylinder of 8'89 cm. (3* in.) bore and a low pressure 
cylinder of 15'87cm. (6J in.) bore. The common stroke is 15'24cm. 


STEAM AUTOMOBILE CARRIAGES. 


397 


(6 in.), and the normal speed 420 revolutions per minute. Both the 
cylinders can be worked with high pressure steam when required. 
The crank shaft carries a pinion at each end, and an intermediate 
shaft, driven by it and fitted with two sliding and corresponding gear 
wheels, transmits the power to a differential gear upon the transverse 
countershaft. The motor, the change-speed, and the differential gear 
all are enclosed in an oil-retaining, dust-proof casing. The gear 
wheels, of steel, are fixed upon their shafts by means of flanges, not 
any keys being used. A flexible drive is secured between the 
differential gear shaft and the chain wheels which it carries at its 
outer ends, and a central bolt passes through it from end to end and 
carries thrust pieces, which relieve its bearings from the effect of the 
spreading action of the bevel wheels; and there is an arrangement 
for locking the differential gear when necessary. The flexible drive 
is obtained by mounting the chain wheels loosely upon the ends of 
the countershaft, rubber cushions being placed between driving faces 
on the shaft and driving faces inside the chain wheels. By this 
arrangement much of the shock when starting with a heavy load is 
taken off the chains and other working parts, as the engine can make 
almost a complete revolution before its full power is exerted on the 
road wheels. The locking device consists of a sleeve which slides 
upon an enlargement of the one half countershaft, near to the 
compensating gear. The opposite half of the countershaft projects 
inside this enlargement, and the parts are so shaped that the 
movement of the sleeve couples the two half shafts together. A 
hand lever is placed under the frame of the vehicle for operating this 
device. The power is transmitted from the countershaft to the two 
road wheels by means of Renolds chains. The change-speed gear 
lever and that for working the reversing gear are placed side by side, 
and work in quadrants in the seat to the right of the driver. The 
former has three positions—one for each speed and an intermediate 
free engine position; and the latter gives three different cut-offs 
forwards, one reversal, and one neutral point. The steering gear is of 
the usual Ackermann pattern with irreversible worm ; it is arranged 
in connection with a vertical pillar in front of the driver. The angle 
of lock is 33°. A second and similar pillar (to the left) is connected 
by a chain to a swinging crossbar carrying a pair of blocks behind 
the tyres of the driving wheels; the chain passes centrally above the 
engine and draws the blocks up against the two tyres equally. 


398 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


The Clarkson and Capel 3-ton steam lurry is shown in elevation 
by Fig. 391 and in plan by Fig. 392. The steel framing supports a 
platform having an area of 6T m. 3 (66 sq. ft.), framing and platform 
being carried on plate springs attached to steel axletrees. The 


ig. 391. 



military type wheels have metal hubs, the wheel base being 3 02 m. 
(9 ft. 11 in.) and the gauge 16 m. (5 ft. 3 in.). This vehicle shows 
several departures from existing practice, the details being very 
ingenious. The Merryweather fire-engine type boiler A is in front, 
and the liquid fuel burner used is illustrated by Fig. 27, p 56.' 













































































































































































































































STEAM AUTOMOBILE CARRIAGES. 


399 

The two-stage compound vertical marine type motor B (see p. 74) 
running at 500 revolutions per minute, is placed with the boiler on 
the fore platform and enclosed in a cab on whose roof is an air 



condenser C formed of rows of thin tubing, air being forced through 
them by a horizontal propeller fan D driven by rope and pulley off the 
main shaft. Transmission is by chains from the main shaft E to an 
























































































































































































































































400 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


intermediate shaft F, upon which is differential gear, and thence to 
the rear driving wheels. The two speeds possible are 9-6 km. and 
3 2 km. (6 miles and 2 miles) per hour on good roads. An 
emeigency steam brake is fitted to each driving wheel, and comes 
mto operation by a reverse movement of the steam regulation lever. 
A pedal operates a band brake G on the motor shaft. Steering is 
effected by the usual worm and screw, the hand-wheel H being°on 
a vertical spindle. The water tanks 5, one each side of the boiler, 



Figs. 395 and 396.— Front and Back 
Elevations op Bayley Steam 
Lurry. 


Fig. 396. 






r - 1 

it— L— j 

-■ ^ 

1 F 

-3 -,n. 

~~r -']t 


hold 230 1. (50 gall.), and the oil fuel tanks K are hung underneath 
the rear part of the vehicle and hold 120 1. (27 gall.). When lkdit 
the lurry weighs nearly 3 tons. ' ’ ' h ' 


The Bayley steam lurry, shown in side elevation by Fio- 393 [ n 
plan by Fig. 394. in front elevation by Fig. 395, and" in Vear 
ehvation by Fig. 396, is the subject of some claims for remarkable 
efficiency. It is built of channelled steel, and the platform has a 
cargo area of 6 m. 2 (65 sq. ft.) and can carry from 3 5 tons to 4-5 tons 
Ordinary waggon springs with link suspension carry the framing and 
the fore axletree is curved to permit of access to the boiler ashpit 
its ends terminating in sockets, in which are the pivots attached to 
the axles of the fore wheels. The rear axletree is a massive iron 


/ 






































































































































STEAM AUTOMOBILE CARRIAGES. 


401 


forging of square section about 1016 cm. by 1016 cm. (4 in. by 4 in.) 
in the middle, and bent in a horizontal plane to allow room for the 
casing containing the differential and bevel transmission gear. The 
military type driving wheels are 88*9 cm. (2 ft. 11 in.) in diameter, 
and have dished tyres 127 cm. (5 in.) wide; the wheel base is 
2 m. 59 cm. (8 ft. 6 in.), and the gauge 1 m. 727 cm. (5 ft. 8 in.). Upon 
each rear driving wheel is bolted an internally toothed wheel, into 
which gear pinions at the ends of the differential shaft, and so the 
motion is transmitted. Band brakes act upon the external periphery 
of the internally toothed wheels. The compound motor is constructed 
under the Straker patents, is wholly enclosed, and is placed longi¬ 
tudinally, the main shaft lying fore and aft and driving the differential 
shaft by means of enclosed bevel gearing, all of which runs in oil. 
Suspension of motor and gearing is ingenious, and the two ratios of 
gearing respectively are 137 to 1 and 8 - 4 to 1. The boiler is on the 
fore platform and is of the de Dion-Bouton “ Pot ” or centrally fired 
type, and contains 86 1. (19 gall.) of water; the fuel is coke, and 
150 kg. (3cwt.) of it is carried. A feed pump is on the motor and 
an injector near the boiler, and the feed tanks are placed between 
and under the framing in the after part, their capacity, including 
that of the tank on the platform, being 372 1. (82 gall.). 

The general arrangement of the Simpson and Bodman steam 
lurry is shown by Figs. 397, 398, and 399; Fig. 397 being 
a side elevation, Fig. 398 a plan of the platform, and Fig. 399 
a front elevation. Fig. 397 shows the framing to consist of 
four longitudinals connected by two transverse frames in the rear. 
This rear framing is supported by four plate springs of very deep 
camber, so arranged that each spring is directly under one 
longitudinal bearer. To these plate springs is attached the main 
or driving wheel axle. Each driving wheel is mounted between a 
pair of springs, and thus the axle is supported throughout its length. 
The rear axle is a weldless steel tube with the axle arms case-hardened 
and ground true, and it carries four spring bearings, the two outer 
ones being at extremities. These bearings are recessed to make dust- 
excluding shrouds for ball thrust collars for each adjustment to the 
wrought iron axle bushes, which are run up with anti-friction metal, 
and are of such a surface that, assuming one-third of the circumference 
as carrying load, they never can have more than 9 kg. per cm. 2 (130 
lb. per sq. in.) of load on them. The method of attaching the rear or 
A A 


402 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


driving wheel to the framing is illustrated by Figs. 397 and 399. 
Lubrication is assured by filling the axle for 18 in. from each end with 
solidified oil and providing an oil hole in the base of the arm. The fore 
part of the framing is carried through spring loaded pins attached to a 
transverse wood framing reinforced with steel plates (see Fig. 399). To 



this transverse framing is attached the fore axle, and also, by means 
o a central bushing (see Fig. 399), the two ash perch bars (see Fio-. 397) 
connecting the two axles. The perch bars are united to the rear axle 
y circular steel collars, which embrace discs formed on the axle but 
keyed eccentrically; this is for the purpose of obtaining a rapid and 
hne adjustment for the chain drive. The front axle is free to oscillate 
vertically with respect to the main framing, a most important point; 

















































































































































































































8 TEAM A UTOMOBILE CARET A GES. 


403 


the same principle is seen in the bogies of locomotives and railroad 
cars. The fore axle is bifurcated at its ends, and is fitted with bell 
crank axles, upon which the free wheels are mounted and to which 
the steering rods are attached. The usual bell crank arm is carried 
outside the wheel to dispense with the welded crank usually employed, 
this weld being difficult to make and interfering with the locking of 
the arms; the bell crank is very long, to obtain leverage. The lurry 
will turn in a circle two and a half times its own length in diameter. 
The steering is by worm and screw, 
actuated by a vertical spindle placed 
close to the driver ('see Fig. 397). The 
available platform area of the frame 
shown in Fig. 398 is 7'8 m. 2 (84*5 sq. ft.). 

The wheels have oak spokes, designed 
to work on the parallel arms. The 
Simpson and Bodman boiler is illus¬ 
trated by Figs. 28 to 30, p. 57, and the 
motor by Figs. 41 and 42, pp. 70 and 71. 

There are two motors, one on each 
side, each actuating its own driving 
wheel, and having nothing in common 
save the steam and exhaust pipes. 

Each crank shaft carries a steel pinion 
gearing into a bronze spur wheel 
on a short shaft carried in brackets 
attached to the motor casing, and on 
these brackets are the chain pinions 
from which motion is transmitted to the main driving wheels. There 
are no clutches for effecting changes of speed, but there are three sets 
of pinions and wheels for each vehicle, giving ratios of 10, 13, and 24, 
and the ends of the crank shafts and second shafts are so arranged 
as to allow for a very quick change of gear; the nuts that lock these 
gears in position on being unscrewed draw the pinions and wheels of 
the shaft. 

The Foden lurry which figured so prominently at the British War 
Office trials of December, 1901, is illustrated in elevation by Fig. 400 
and in plan by Fig. 401, which show it to be of novel and interesting 
design, somewhat resembling a small high-speed traction engine and 
a lurry combined. The locomotive type horizontal boiler B forms 
a A 2 



Fig. 399. -Front Elevation of 
Simpson and Bodman Lurry. 






















































404 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


the front end of the channel steel frame A, and its fire-hose end C 
backs on to the driver’s cab D. During the trials above referred to 
the boiler was fired with coal, and steam was raised in about forty- 
five minutes. The compound horizontal motor E is mounted traction- 
engine fashion on the top of the boiler, towards the fire-box end being 



the crank shaft F, carrying fly-wheel G; it has link reversing gear and 
a special device for admitting steam into the low pressure cylinder. 
Below the crank shaft, and gearing with it by means of one or two sets 
of spur wheels H J is a parallel counter-shaft K, power from which is 
transmitted to the line rear axle by two roller chains L working side 
by side and running on chain-wheel rings mounted on the periphery 
of the differential gear case 0. The rear axle has external bearings 
ree to move vertically in guides on brackets M attached to the 
frame A, and the load is supported by a single plate spring N at each 


















































































































































STEAM AUTOMOBILE CARRIAGES. 


405 


side; in front the load is carried by a single cross spring P attached 
at its centre to the lower locking plate Q, and resting at each end on 
the front axle. Steering is accomplished by turning the axle about a 
central pin, the usual hand steering wheel being in the driver’s cab; 
the manoeuvring capabilities are exceedingly good, and the per¬ 
formance of the vehicle at the War Office trials was highly successful. 

The Negre lurry (Figs. 402 and 403, pp. 406 and 407) can carry a 
useful load of a ton; the boiler (p. 44) is multitubular, and there are 
two Negre motors (p. 73) of different dimensions, so as to be able to 
work compound or separately, and thus give 10 or 16 h.p. Boiler and 
motors are in front of the lurry. The driving shaft performs 400 or 
500 revolutions per minute, and entrains by two chains and pinions 
the differential shaft, which communicates motion to the rear driving 
wheels by chains, whose tension can be regulated by angular displace¬ 
ment of a device seen behind the steering fore wheels. The two speeds 
are 8 km. and 16 km. (4'9 miles and 9'9 miles) per hour. The Lemoine 
brake is coiled on the rear axle or on the differential shaft, and it is 
worked by a pedal. Another pedal works a shoe brake, which can be 
kept tight by means of a screw. The underframe, made of angle iron, 
rises at the back of the motor and boiler platform to receive the floor of 
the lurry. The water is carried in a tank of 600 1. (132 gall.) capacity. 

The Piat steam lurry (Fig. 404, p. 408) can carry a useful load of 
5 or 6 tons; it is entirely of metal, and the steering mechanism in 
front is separated completely from the rear propelling mechanism. A 
motor attendant is indispensable to the working of the lurry. The 
boiler, with curvilinear assemblages of tubes, registered at a steam 
pressure of 10 kg. per cm. 2 (142 lb. per sq. in.), has a heating 
surface of 1095 m. 2 (117‘8 sq. ft.), and can vaporise as much as 
685 kg. (1,507 lb.) of water per hour, burning coke or coal, or even 
wood. The water is carried in cylindric tanks holding 1,300 1. 
(286 gall.) below the frame. The motor has cylinders inclined at 45°, 
160 mm. (6'29 in.) bore, with a piston stroke of 150 mm. (59 in.); the 
distribution has a constant lead by means of a single eccentric whose 
shaft is placed along the axis of the vehicle and has two fly wheels, 
and transmits motion by bevel pinions to an intermediary shaft which 
drives by toothed gear the differential wheel. Two hollow axles run 
from the latter and are united to the axle ends, which form one with 
the wheels by aid of a device specially invented by Bardet and Denis 
in imitation of the Oldham joint. This system of driving decreases 


406 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


friction and allows the axle to follow the unevenness of the road. The 
steering wheels, with independent pivots, are controlled by a worm 
screw. The brakes act on the top part of the driving wheels by means 



of a balance beam with its point of support on the w heel axles, so that 
working of the brake will not interfere with the springs. The speed is 
from 10 km. to 12 km. (6'2 miles to 7 45 miles) per hour on a level. 


















































































































































































































































































STEAM AUTOMOBILE OABBIAGES. 


407 


upon this countershaft 
that either the one or 
the other of them can 
be brought in gear with 

O o 

its corresponding pinion 
on the crank shaft. A 
second countershaft is 
driven by the first one, 
and it in turn drives a 
large spur wheel A 
(Fig. 406), upon the 
differential gear. A 
band brake acts upon 
a drum on this coun¬ 
tershaft. The rear axle 
B, of 8-9 cm. (3| in.) 
diameter, passes from 
the left-hand driving 
wheel C, which is fixed 
to it, through the right- 

hand wheel D to an outside thrust collar. The bevel wheel E of the 
differential is fixed to it on a squared portion, and the bevel wheel F, 
with its right-hand driving wheel, runs freely upon it. The bevel F 


The Mann steam cart is shown by Fig. 405, p. 409, and its con¬ 
struction is more easily understood by reference to Fig. 406, p. 409, 
which is a section 
through the rear axle. 

The motor is fixed upon 
the top of the boiler, 
and the crank shaft 
carries a pinion wheel 
at each end and a fly¬ 
wheel outside the pinion 
on the left-hand side. 

A first countershaft lies 
parallel with, but below 
and behind, the crank 
shaft ; and two spur 
wheels are so arranged 



Fig. 403. —Plan of Negre Steam Lurry 



















































































































































































408 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 



has a brake drum, and 
the spur wheel A carries 
a divided brake band 
(not shown), which can 
be tightened so as to 
lock the differential 
gear when desired. 

The cart body G is 
carried by hornplates 
H upon its own wheels 
I, and these wheels can 
be pinned rigidly to the driving- 
wheels D by the bolts J. The 
Avheels are each built up of two 
steel plates K, flanged at their peri¬ 
pheries, bored out at their centres, 
curved as shown in Fig. 406, and 
cut out so far as to form strong 

o 

spokes. These plates are connected 
together by a central cast steel boss 
or hub L, to which they are riveted, 
and by a wide steel tyre, which is 
similarly fixed in place. The wheels 
D are so made that the pins J pass 
through specially provided portions 
which come between their ordinary 
spokes; but in the wheels I the pins 
pass through the centre of the 
spokes ; by this arrangement the 
strength of the double wheel is 
increased in consequence of the 
spokes of the inner and outer wheels 
failing to come opposite each other. 
The wheels are 4 ft. in diameter, and 
each single wheel weighs about 5 cwt. 
and is 5 in. wide. 

In the Mann steam lurry, Fig. 
407, p. 410, the motor is fixed above 
a large water tank, formed by the 


o 

• r—i 


























STEAM AUTOMOBILE CARRIAGES. 


409 


frame between the boiler and the driving wheels. The crank 
shaft carries a pair of pinion wheels on its right-hand end. Either 



Fig. 405. —Mann Steam Tipping Cart. Fig. 406. —Hale Back Elevation and Half 

Section of Mann Cart. 


of two corresponding spur wheels on a countershaft can be brought 
into gearr with one of these, and the countershaft drives the 












































































































































































410 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


large spur wheel upon the differential gear. The motor, which is 
fitted with an oil bath casing, can be easily got at, when required, 
by tipping the balanced lurry about its stub axles. The rear axle 
and the driving wheels are very similar to those above described, 
except that the latter are 3 ft. 6 in. in diameter. The sides of the 
framework are made in one piece with the side plates of the fire-box, 
and the bearings are made to register accurately into these plates ; 
long bronze bearing surfaces are provided for the crank and counter¬ 
shafts, and these are supported in steel castings which are bolted to 
the frame, as well as being turned to fit the holes bored in it. The 
front axle is mounted centrally in hornplates, and is fitted with a 
transverse spring; the whole of this is carried by a turntable beneath 



Fig. 407 .—Mann Steam Lurry. 


the boiler, and steering is effected by a sloping hand-wheel and through 

worm gearing. Both cart and lurry employ very simple reversing 
gear. 

Hitherto in this chapter only powerful vehicles arranged for 
carrying both passengers and luggage have been described, and it 
must be remembered that steam is particularly suitable for traction 
of heavy weights. By substituting petroleum or petrol spirit for 
coke and inventing a new boiler, Serpollet was able at once to do 
away with the dust associated with coal and coke, and with the 
necessity of having an engine attendant, thus rendering steam 
applicable to light. cars. This is demonstrated by a study of the 
remarkable car which he exhibited at the Tuileries in 1898 This 
phaeton (Fig. 408), weighing 500 kg. (1,100 lb.), has a 5 hp motor 
which, together with the boiler, is at the back of the car, the motor 
resting directly on the axle. In certain cars the motor is suspended 
to prevent vibrations. Forestier says that the boiler, being in the 
lear of the car, is liable to heat the body, and considers it preferable 
to have it m front, provided that it does not project. But in the 




















STEAM AUTOMOBILE CARRIAGES. 


411 


latter position it might be a greater inconvenience to the passengers. 
Its shaft, which has not a fly-wheel (the car acts as such), drives 
the differential wheel by a pinion, whose divided shaft runs the rear 
wheels. The transmission is real simplicity, and the changes of 
speed are assured by the motor. For steering there is provided a 
steering handle A (Fig. 408), connected with the two-pivot axle; 



pedal B, working the slide-block, regulates the delivery of water and 
petroleum; C operates the band-brake on the differential, and crank 
D the shoe brake. The car carries a tank holding 25 1. (44 pts.) 
of petroleum, and another holding 35 1. (61'6 pts.) of water. 
The exhaust steam, after having had its oil removed in a special 
box, goes to the condenser, and thence passes again to the boiler. 
The speed on a fairly level road is from 20 km. to 30 km. (12‘4 
miles to 18’6 miles) per hour, but 40 km. (24’8 miles) and even 
50 km. (31 miles) per hour are possible, and gradients can be climbed 
easily. Consumption is only 075 1. (T3 pt.) of petroleum per 






































































412 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


horse-power hour, and the absence of all odour denotes that the 
fuel is being used properly. 

Three types of steam-car are built by Leon Serpollet in conjunc¬ 
tion with Frank Gardner. The following short table refers to the first 
two :— 


Type. 

Weight of boiler. 

Distance to travel 
without new supplies. 

Weight, in running 
order. 

Time required for 
starting. 

6 h.p. 

10 to 12 h.p. 

100 kg. (220 lb.) 
150 kg. (330 lb.) 

150 km. (93 miles.) 
150 km. (93 miles.) 

850 kg. (1,870 lb.) 
1,100 kg. (2,420 lb.) 

6 minutes. 

6 minutes. 


Expansion of steam can be operated during 85 per cent, of the 
journey. The burners, which consume ordinary petroleum, can 
work for# 1,500 km. (932 miles) without needing cleaning*, and at 
the end of this time easily can be renovated. A special multiple 
delivery lubricator forces the oil to all the parts to be lubricated, 
both those in the open air and in the steam pipes for lubricating 
the motoi, this lubricator starts and stops with the motor. 

The third, type manufactured by Serpollet and Gardner is a 
voiturette, which was exhibited at the Tuileries in 1899. Together 
with sufficient water and petroleum for travelling about 60 km. 
(37 miles), it weighs only 250 kg. (550 lb.), so that it can, in ac¬ 
cordance with the French regulations of March 10, 1899, dispense 
with reversing gear; it has been possible to reduce the weight of the 
3 h.p. motor to 29 kg. (63*8 lb.). As is the case in more powerful 
motors by the same makers, it has valves, is without piston rods 
slides, or grooves; but it drives the differential gear by a chain! 
instead of by toothed wheels, the said chain running directly from 
motor to differential gear, placed on the rear axle. This axle is 
divided, and is mounted with connecting rods and rendered rimd by 
a tube bridge; moreover, all the underframe is tubular and suspended 
on springs with all the machine parts. The water and petroleum 
are m front in tanks of 8 1. and 15 1. (14 pts. and 26*4 pts.) capacitv. 
Part , of the exhaust water can be regenerated and noise decreased 
by aid of a small condenser. The consumption of petroleum per 
km. (*62 mile) is from 0*1 1 . to 0*125 1 (*176 r»t to -99 ra \ fu 1 

speed is ~5 km. (15*5 miles) per hour, and hills are climbed easilv 
The general arrangement of mechanism in the Gardner-Serpollet 
steam car is shown by Fig. 409, and in this type the chief features, it 















STEAM AUTOMOBILE CARRIAGES. 


413 


may be said, are the use of highly superheated steam generated in a 
flash boiler, the use of liquid fuel, interacting controlling devices for 
the fuel and water feeds, and a superheated steam motor. As may be 
gathered from Fig. 409, the upper surface of the steel frame carries in 
front the water reservoir, 
holding about 59 1. (13’ 


& 


dash- 



all.) ; fixed to a 
board are an air pump 
worked by hand for main¬ 
taining a slight pressure 
in the oil tank, a lever 
for operating a two-speed 
change gear, three pres¬ 
sure gauges, and a safety 
valve. Upon the steering 
wheel pillar are mounted 
a handle for operating the 
reversing gear on the 
motor, and a hand wheel 
for regulating the water 
and fuel feed pumps. 

The oil tank holding 
about 50 1. (11 gall.) is 
under the driver’s seat, 
and at the rear is the 
boiler, represented dia- 
grammatically in Fig. 409. 

Below the steel frame and 
forward and immediately 
below the front seat is the 
condenser, immediately 
behind which are carried 
the motor, the motor- 
driven feed pumps, and 
the main steam valve, the last-named being controlled by a pedal. 
An exhaust box on each side of the boiler contains iron turn¬ 
ings, and separates any lubricating oil from the exhaust steam 
before it passes to the condenser. The horizontal motor has four 
cylinders, and reversing and variation of cut-off are obtained by 


























































































































414 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


sliding cams, these operating valves, along the cam shaft; there 
is a cut-off of from 25 to 85 per cent, of the stroke. The 
tubes in the flash boiler are heated proportionately to the energy 
required, and when the motor is at rest they are maintained at only 
a sufficient temperature to produce steam immediately it is required, 
that is, when water is forced into them. The burners number twelve, 
and the air pressure in the oil tank keeps them fed continually. The 
tube which conveys the oil is coiled above the burners, and the oil 
therefore reaches them as vapour. The two automatic fuel feed 
pumps are driven by the motor, and connected to the long lever shown 



in F ig. 409 is a third pump which, when required, forces water into 
the boiler and starts the motor. The two automatic feed pumps are 
shown by Fig. 410, whilst Fig. 411 is a diagram of their connections 
with the oil tank and furnace and with the water tank and boiler In 
Fig. 410 A is the water pump and B the oil feed pump, both of them 
being actuated simultaneously by means of a stepped cam I) the 
ever C, and a friction roller F. The cam D is mounted on a feather 
key upon a shaft which carries a toothed wheel G and which 
revolves when the motor is working. The longitudinal position of 
this cam upon the shaft is controlled by the driver, and thus the 
throw of the two pumps is varied at will by him. A spring (not 
illustrated) performs the suction strokes, and the cam I) the delivery 
strokes. The effect of each of the seven steps on the cam D is 
indicated clearly by Fig. 410. A pedal to the left of the driver is 

arranged to enable him to open the main steam valve, which normally 
is kept closed by means of a spring. J 


































STEAM AUTOMOBILE CARRIAGES. 


415 


_ ^ le -^ e R re steam victoria, for four passengers, has two of the seats 
quite in fiont of the car. There is an instantaneous vaporising 
boiler and an 8 h.p. four-cylinder motor in the form of a cross ; both 
boiler and motor are lodged behind the front seats. The motor shaft 

drives an intermediary shaft, which in turn drives the rear wheels 
by chains. 

The Kecheur steam car, with four places, which was exhibited at 
the laris Salon du Cycle of December, 1898,has a boiler with twenty- 
four elements. The boiler temperature can be brought to 500° C. 
(932° F.) in twelve minutes. To start the motor the hand pump 


E5 K" 2 K"’ 



Fig. 411 .-—Connections on GUrdner-Serpollet Steam Car. 

injects 150 cm. 3 (026 pt.) of water; feeding is continued by the 
automatic pump, making it possible to vary the power from 0 to 81 
h.p. A ten-hour journey can be made with 401. (18-8 gall.) of water 
and 25 1. (5’5 gall.) of petrol spirit (density varying from 0700 to 
0780). The toothed wheel keyed on the motor shaft has a diameter 
three times greater than that of the pinions driven by the piston 
rods; thus the motor can directly work the differential shaft, on 
whose ends is a pinion which moves the nave of one of the rear 
wheels, which alone is a driving wheel. There is no mechanical 
speed-changing gear, the speed varying with the feeding of the boiler. 
The underframe, constructed of firmly braced tubes, carries the 
boiler in the rear and motor and condenser in front. The wheels 
have metal tangent spokes and pneumatic tyres. The steering bar 
has two handles. 

The Clarkson and Capel steam landau had a modified type 
of Thornycroft boiler, which was heated with petroleum (the 















































416 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


burners are fed under pressure of air and controlled by a special 
governor); the motor has six cylinders, already described on p. 73. 
The friction parts of the cylinders and pistons are made of phosphor- 
bronze, to prevent corrosion when the car has to remain some 
considerable time in a damp apartment; the piston rods and crank 
shafts are nickel steel; all the bearings are ball. Motion is trans¬ 
mitted from the driving to the differential shaft by speed-changing 
toothed wheels, and thence to the rear car wheels by chains. The 



Fig. 412— Side Elevation of Automobile Manufacturing Company’s Steam Car. 


underframe, with the mechanism it carries, rests on the axles by 
curved springs. The body is suspended above the frame by other 
springs and belts; in fact, it has a double suspension, which must be 
veiy sensitive. The boiler, engine, and mechanism are in the rear 
under the driver’s seat, and the condenser is in the front of the car, 
which carries 45 1. (79 pts.) of water, sufficient for a journey of 65 km. 
(40-3 miles). The same constructors build a steam victoria. Amongst 
the English light steam cars, mention may be made of the Toward 
and Philipson brake-wagonette, with six seats. 

The Automobile Manufacturing Company s steam car is shown in 
side elevation by Fig. 412, in front elevation by Fig. 413, and in back 
elevation by Fig. 414. A flash type boiler is employed, heated 
with petroleum, an oscillating type of motor driving direct on the 























































































STEAM AUTOMOBILE CARRIAGES. 


417 


Fig. 414. 


,G , H V 


. Mi . mi: 


jTi 1 .i-j J < V -A ^ i 

Uifrii ira itU! 

i V' -’ • --■ a— j ! ' I 4 (.'• i,.!j i 

-hi; _F? 



rear axle, an automatic water feed to the boiler, a condenser which 
enables part of the feed water to be returned to the water tank, and a 
reheater which renders 
any uncondensed steam 
invisible. This car pre¬ 
sents considerable devia¬ 
tions from usual practice. 

Figs. 412, 413, and 414 
show that a channel 
framework carries all 
the various parts, jointed 
tie rods connecting the 
front and rear axles. 

The boiler B, in front, 
is heated by a furnace 
A, into which the oil and 
air enter through the 
passage C. The fuel 
supply is regulated by a 
needle valve, adjusted by 
a system of levers, of 
which D is one. The 
steam from the boiler 
B passes to a distribut¬ 
ing valve F, which 
directs it into either the 
two cut-off valves G or 
into the trunnion valves 
H. The distributing 
valve F also changes 

* O j) 

over the connections of 5jj_[ 
the main exhaust pipe 
to the other of these 
supply and exhaust 
valves, at the same time 
that it changes over the 




Figs. 413 and 414. —Front and Back Elevation of 
Automobile Manufacturing Company’s Steam Car. 

live steam connections 

to them. In this particular car the valve F, which may be called a 
reversing valve, is circular, the live steam being on the upper and the 

* BB 































































































418 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


expanded steam on the lower side. By rotating the valve the motor 
is reversed and the degree of throttle varied. This valve is actuated 
by hand through the rods J and K. When running forwards, the 
steam passes through the cut-off valves G to the outside trunnion 
valves H of two oscillating cylinders L. The sliding blocks M> 
actuated by the hand lever N through the rod 0, enable the cut-off 
of both of the cylinders to be varied as desired. Two double-acting 
cylinders L are carried by trunnions upon arms, mounted at their 
other ends about the rear axle. The cylinders have a bore of 10T6 cm. 
(4 in.) and a stroke of 223 cm. (8’8 in.); and their piston-rod ends are 
connected to cranks forming part of the rear axle. The two cranks are 
set at 90° from each other, and thus avoid any dead points. The 
cylinders L oscillate upon trunnions, and so control the admission 
and exhaust of steam to and from themselves. The exhaust steam 
passes from the distributing valve F to a large condenser P under¬ 
neath the frame, whose other end leads into the chamber Q, where 
any condensed steam collects. A pipe (not shown) leads from the 
bottom of the chamber Q into a water tank under the seat. This 
pipe forms a coil in the water tank, and terminates above the surface 
of the water. From the top of this tank a pipe leads into the flue of the 
boiler. Thus steam is condensed, and the water formed is driven up into 
the water tank. If, however, the condenser is unable to condense all 
the steam, the surplus passes through the coil in the water tank and, 
if still uncondensed, passes into the hot flue of the boiler and is 
reheated before going into the atmosphere. The paraffin tanks R 
and S, and an air tank T, also are fitted at the back of the seat, a 
petrol tank being placed under the seat. 

The fuel and water connections of the above car are shown by 
Fig. 415. A two-way cock A enables either petroleum or petrol spirit 
to pass to a second two-way cock B, which either passes the fuel by 
the pipe C to a starting coil D, and thence by the pipe E to the 
spray nozzle F, or it allows the oil to flow through the pipe G and 
the heating coil H to pipe E. The coil D, before starting, is heated 
by a spirit flame S. A motor driven pump draws water from the 
supply tank through the pipe J, and forces it by the pipe K into a 
cylinder L of the regulator. A plan of the regulator M is 
given below the elevational view. A piston N fits in the 
cylinder L, and normally is held in its inner position by springs 0. 
The water entering the cylinder L tends to force the piston N out- 


STEAM AUTOMOBILE CARRIAGES. 


419 


wards, and when the water pressure is sufficient to overcome the 
springs 0 the piston travels outwards, and in so doing opens a by¬ 
pass valve P through a system of levers Q, and allows water to 
return to the suction pipe J. The water flows from the cylinder L 
into the boiler by the pipe R whenever the pressure in the boiler 
becomes less than that due to the springs 0. 

I he Stanley car (made at Waltham, Mass., U.S.A.) is a special 
type of vehicle, weighing only 215 kg. (4731b.) empty, and 275 kg. 
((505 lb.) ready for the road. The boiler, a conspicuous feature, is of 
the fire-tube type, which is very little employed for cars; it is formed 
of a cylindrical sheet-steel body, 6 mm. ('23 in.) thick, around which 



o 


Fig. 415. — Connections ox Automobile Manufacturing Company’s Steam Car. 

are wound two rows of steel wire 0 9 mm. ('035 in.) in diameter. 
The end plates of the cylinder are perforated with 300 holes each, 
and are united in twos by as many vertical copper tubes of 11 mm. 
('43 in.) bore and 1'5 mm. ('059 in.) thick, forming escape flues for the 
hot gases from the burners. 

The burners employed in the Stanley car have a body constituted 
by a sheet-iron cylinder of the same diameter as the boiler, to which 
it is united by square supports; a second cylinder, concentric with 
the first, receives and mixes the petrol spirit already vaporised by its 
passage through the delivery pipe, part of which is surrounded by the 
boiler water. The second cylinder is crossed by 114 vertical copper 
tubes, open at both ends, so as to produce a draught of air; around 
the mouths of these tubes on the higher plate of the cylinder the 
latter is perforated with twenty capillary orifices, through which the 
B B 2 

















































420 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


petrol spirit enters to be ignited at contact with the air. For start¬ 
ing, there is a heating tube branched on the petrol spirit delivery 
nozzle and also on the burner, and this is raised to a sufficient 
temperature. In four or live minutes the water in the boiler is hot 
enough to atomise the petrol spirit as it passes, and then the heating 
tube is removed. The boiler, tested at 24 kg. per cm. 2 (341 3 lb. 
per sq. in.), is maintained at its normal pressure of 10 kg. per cm. 2 
(14221b. per sq. in.) by a very ingenious regulator. 

This regulator consists of a metal diaphragm retained between 
the two straps of a joint, the right side being subjected to the 
pressure of the boiler, whilst the left side acts on a needle valve, 
admitting the petrol spirit, so as to decrease the intake as soon as 
the pressure exceeds 9 kg. per cm. 2 (128 lb. per sq. in.), in conse¬ 
quence of which the burners are reduced automatically to pilot 
lights. If the pressure attains 10 kg. per cm. 2 (142 - 2 lb. per sq. in.), 
the needle valve almost completely closes the inlet orifice. The 
boiler is fed by a small pump controlled by one of the motor con¬ 
necting rod ends, and regulated by a cock turned on or off by the 

driver; when turned off, the water pumped returns to the tank. 

The steam produced by the boiler is conveyed to the hammer 

type motor, which is 44 cm. (173 in.) high, and consists of two 

vertical cylinders, having a bore of 63 - 5 mm. (2*5 in.), and a piston 
stroke of 90 mm. (354 in.); distribution is operated by slide valves, 
eccentrics, and slot links. The crank shafts and eccentric collars 
are mounted on balls. This motor gives an average of 5 h.p., with 
300 revolutions per minute. The boiler, surrounded by the water 
tank and the motor, are in the rear of the car in a large louvred case, 
over the axle, which in front supports the seat for two persons. The 
burnt gases escape through an orifice at the back, as does the ex¬ 
haust steam, after having been expanded in a silencer, and having- 
given up part of its heat in the water tank. A pinion with twelve 
teeth is keyed on the motor shaft, and by means of a chain drives 
a toothed wheel, double in diameter, fixed on the differential, which 
occupies the centre of the rear axle. The small road wheels, both 
front and rear, have metal tangent spokes and pneumatic tyres. 

The underframe of the Stanley car is formed of two tubular side 
bars, 32 mm. (1*26 in.) in diameter, and rests on the two axles by 
means of curved tubes placed above them, to which the side bars are 
hinged. This frame carries the steering gear, this being comprised 


STEAM AUTOMOBILE CARRIAGES. 


421 


by a loose bar or fly wheel acting on a central connecting rod 
) y t vo gear rods, works the little steering rods of the 

fore Avheels. The underframe supports the car body by a transversal 
nipper spring in front, and two longitudinal springs in the rear. The 
car has two brakes, one with a pedal acting on the differential, the 
other with a hand lever, working collars which encircle the naves of 



Fig-. 416. —Locomobile Two-seat Steam Car. 


the driving wheels. Independently ot this pedal and lever, three 
transmission levers are within reach of the driver; the first acts on 
the steam inlet valve of the cylinders, and varies the speed of the car; 
the second acts on the distributing slot links of the motor to reverse 
motion and put on the brake by back steam ; the third opens or shuts 
the boiler feed cock. These three levers act by aid of hollow con¬ 
centric rods, which occupy the least possible space. The air in the 
petrol spirit tank, under the seat floor, can be compressed to 1 kg. or 
2 kg. peT cm. 2 (14*2 lb. or 28*4 lb. per sq. in.) before the liquid is 












422 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


conveyed, to the burners. A pressure gauge hung on the apron 
indicates the pressure on the tank, and another gauge records that or 
the boiler. A mirror placed on the side of the car reflects the level 
of water in the boiler. With 12 1. (21*12 pts.) of petrol spirit and 
135 1. (29 gall. 5 6 pts.) of water the car can run 100 miles. 

The Stanley car has been talked about much since its introduction, 
and it has claims to originality. One objection to it, however, 
is the relatively large capacity of the boiler 20 1. (4*4 gall.). There 
is only an insignificant amount at a given moment in the 
Serpollet instantaneous vaporisation boiler; and such a volume 
of water as is present at one time in the Stanley boiler would cause 
grave accident in case of explosion. Then the employment of 
petroleum for heating a boiler is more expensive than using it direct 
in the cylinder of an internal combustion motor, and in this respect 
the increased expense is more noticeable in the case of petrol spirit 
than with petroleum ; and the Stanley car seems to be better able to 
burn the first than the second. 

The “Locomobile” steam car is typical of many light steam cars, 
chiefly of American make, that have become popular in Great Britain 
and elsewhere. It is made by the Locomobile Company of America, 
and two types are shown by Figs. 416 and 417. It has the advantages 
of lightness and ease of operation, whilst many consider its general 
appearance admirable. The fuel used is petrol spirit stored in a 
copper reservoir under the footboard and forced by compressed air 
through the boiler, where it is vaporised, and thence to the burner. 
The vertical copper boiler contains 4 m. 2 (44 sq. ft.) of heating surface, 
and gives a steam pressure of 10*5 kg. per cm. 2 (150 lb. per sq. in.). A 
direct-acting pump connected to one of the cross heads of the motor 
feeds the water to .the boiler. The motor is double acting, and 
reversing gear is a simple link motion, ball bearings being employed 
throughout, excepting in the eccentrics; lubrication is very efficient. 
The two steel-trussed ball-bearing axles are connected by a double 
reach, the steering front wheels being connected to their axle by swivel 
joints. In very many points the Locomobile resembles the Stanley 
car described above. 

The Lifu steam car now is made by the Steam Car Company, House’s 
System, Limited. It is a well-built car having a 10 h.p. horizontal 
motor, closed in, with its working parts running in an oil bath; the 
cylinders are compound, but with the use of an intercepting valve 


STEAM AUTOMOBILE CARRIAGES. 423 

both of the cylinders may be worked at high pressure when climbing 
steep gradients. The power is transmitted to the back axle by a steel 
pinion on the crank shaft running in a bronze gear wheel on the 
outside of the differential gear case, all running in oil. The cylinder 
end of the motor is hung to the frame of the car by a double-ended 
ball joint, thus allowing free action of the back axle, while at the same 
time the machinery mechanically adapts itself to the movement 
of the axle. Two pumps are worked from the motor with 
a double-ended plunger, one being the main feed-pump, and the other 
maintaining the air pressure in the oil tank when the car is running. 



By means of an auxiliary hand feed-pump the boiler can be filled 
when the car is not running, and there is a hand air-pump fixed to 
the seat for raising the air pressure in the oil tank when necessary. 
The burner uses ordinary paraffin oil. When steam is up the burner 
flame is regulated automatically by the pressure in the boiler, and can 
be turned out from the driver’s seat. The copper fuel tank holds 
enough oil for from 95 km. to 130 km. (60 to 80 miles). The water 
tank holds sufficient for 48 km. to 64 km. (30 to 40 miles), according 
to the condition of the roads, and both fuel and water tanks have 
indicating dials. The steam, after leaving the motor, passes into an 
exhaust box and atmospheric condenser; the uncondensed steam then 



424 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


is taken into the smoke-box above the boiler and passes away 
invisibly. The water from the feed-pump is forced through a large 
coil of copper pipe in the cover of the smoke-box, and then into a 
mud separator in the boiler, the products of combustion being used 
to raise the temperature of the feed water before going into the boiler. 
A powerful brake, operated by the foot, expands two levers (shod with 
fibre) into a flanged disc fastened to each of the hind wheels ; this 
brake works during either forward or backward motion. The revers¬ 
ing of the engine also acts as a powerful brake. 

As regards driving fore-carriages, in studying the petrol and 
electric vehicles in following chapters, some, driving fore-carriages 
will be described and their advantages pointed out, but it is not 
thought that hitherto any steam fore-carriages have been built; this 
is not to be wondered at, because it seems somewhat difficult to lodge 
a boiler, motor, and all the transmission and steering gear, all on a 
single axle. Nevertheless, this has been attempted by Turgan and 
Foy, in whose arrangement the fore-carriage supports a Turgan 
boiler; the horizontal driving shaft has a bevel pinion which gears 
directly with a second pinion keyed on a vertical shaft passing 
through the axis of a pivot formed of a tube. At the lower part of 
this shaft another bevel wheel directly gears with the differential box 
of the axle upon which the wheels are keyed, and to compensate for 
the variations of distance which, on account of the suspension 
springs, separate the frame from the axle, there are two parts 

united by a nipper spring, which is here preferred to the universal 
joint. 


425 


CHAPTER XVIII. 

PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 

The plan or general arrangement of a petrol carriage first must be 
understood. A petrol carriage should comprise the petrol spirit tank, 
the carburetter, the igniting device with battery of other electric 
generator, or, if incandescent tubes, with burners fed by a small petrol 
spirit tank in which a suitable pressure is maintained by aid of a 
hand pump, the motor with its distributing and governing appliances 
and sometimes an accelerator to momentarily neutralise the governor? 
the cooler, usually with radiator and pump, the silencer, the trans¬ 
mission gears, comprising in general engaging and disengaging gear, 
speed changing gear, a secondary shaft on which the differential is 
mounted, endless chains moving the driving wheels (exceptionally a 
hinged axle), and a reversing device, two brakes automatically cutting 
oft’ communication of motor and transmission gear, one acting on the 
differential shaft and the other on the driving wheels, drasf or a 
pawl to prevent recoil, two axles, one driving and the other steering, 
the underframe, the body, and transmission and lubricating apparatus. 
There is not in all this complication the simplicity of the steam car, 
still less that of the electric car ; but all petrol vehicles have not the 
multiplicity of parts just enumerated. In voiturettes cooling is 
assured by the outer air, or at least by a very simple water circulation 5 
and those weighing when empty less than 250 kg. (550 lb.) have not 
reversing gear. Tricycles and quadricycles are much more simple 
than are regular cars. 

Attempts to drive bicycles by petrol motors mounted on their 
frames have numbered legion, and at the present time there are 
considerably more than fifty types of motor bicycles on the market; 
but yet this vehicle is still in but a slightly developed stage, and 
a great deal remains to be done before its construction will even 

o 

approach perfection. However, in spite of their drawbacks, many 
of the machines are quite serviceable and capable of really hard 
work, as instanced by H. Egerton’s successful journey on a 




THE AUTOMOBILE . 


42 o 


Werner motor bicycle from Land’s End to John O’Groat’s. The 
advantages of the motor bicycle over the automobile are that the way 
can be chosen more easily, as only a single track is required, steering 
is more perfect, and the machine is so narrow as to be easily 
taken in and out ot traffic and to be ridden along paths quite 
inaccessible to the car or even voiturette. Their chief disadvantage, 
and the one which designers are endeavouring to remove, is the 
liability to skid on greasy roads, but improved construction and the 
better distribution ot weight will do much to lessen this liability; 
also it must not be forgotten that much of the skidding and side¬ 
slipping attributed to bad construction are caused by indifferent 
riding, and it is necessary, if these incidents are to be avoided, that 
the ridei keep a firm grip of the handles and balances himself 
perfectly. It is difficult to design a motor bicycle owing to the narrow 
and limited space available for the distribution of the mechanism, 
and the difficulty is increased by the necessarily high speed of the 
motor relatively to the driving wheel. That these difficulties are very 
real is shown by the indecision amongst manufacturers as to the 
conect position of the motor, which is found placed in every possible 
way, whilst gearing may be belt, chain, friction, or toothed, and the 
motor may drive either the front wheel, back wheel, or a crank-pin. 
It will suffice if a few of the leading types of motor bicycles are 
illustrated and briefly described, as though, as has been stated, there 
are a great number of different makes, half-a-dozen of them are fairly 
representative of the whole. 


As regards history, a motor bicycle was constructed by Daimler 
m 1885, but it was not until nine or ten years later that any 
development of this application of motor driving occurred The 
Wolfmuller motor bicycle (Fig. 418) appeared in 1894, but it was 
hardly a practicable machine. It had two parallel motor cylinders 
and the bicycle framework had four horizontal inter-connected 
tubes and four inclined tubes, similarly arranged. The rear wheel 
was solid, and had a pneumatic tyre, and acted as the motor fly¬ 
wheel. Motion was transmitted by rods from the two trunk pistons 
reciprocating in unison with each other, to cranks on the rear 
axle, ball bearings at both ends rendering it possible for the rods 
to move m the oblique direction necessitated by the relative positions 
of the motor cylinders and rear axle crank pins. 

I he \\ erner (Fig. 419) is the best known motor bicycle probably ; 



Fig. 420.— Centaure Motor Bicycle. Fig. 421. -Orient Motor Bicycle. 
















































428 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


its motor, secured to the steering tube and to the double forks, 
drives the front wheel by a leather band running on pulleys. The 
light hand fork is bent so as to be cleared by the pulley rim, which 
is attached by four arms to the rim of the wheel. The pulley rims 
have a V-section. The carburetter, ignition battery, and coil are 
attached to the top and seat tubes. The motor cylinder is air¬ 
cooled, and is 535 mm. (25 in.) bore by 88*9 mm. (3*5 in.) stroke, 
the fly-wheels being enclosed in a crank-chamber; a small exhaust 
box is fitted to the exhaust pipe. The Ducommun motor bicycle 
has the motor in the same position as the Werner, but it is attached 
to the main frame, and the back wheel is driven by a crossed band. 
Other machines with motors in front above the wheel are the 
Centenari and Royal Enfield, the motor of the former belt-driving a 
counter-shaft which chain-drives the back wheel. 

hhe Gentauie machine and the Roulevard machine are examples 
of bicycles with the motor behind the rider’s saddle. In the Cen- 
taure (Fig. 420) the motor is held in position by clips on the frame 
and by a stay running to the right hand near fork. A band 
connects the motor pulley to the rear wheel pulley. The Boulevard 
is very similar, but the motor is fixed to a double fork which holds 
the rear wheel axle, and a chain-driven counter-shaft has a concave 
friction wheel which imparts motion to the tyre of the wheel. 
Objections to this type are that the air cannot play freely round 

the air-cooled motor, and that the rider cannot see the mechanism 
at work. 

The majority of motor bicycles have the motor within the frame. 
For instance, the Orient (Fig. 421) has an Aster motor inclined inside 
the frame, and carried by the lower frame tube of special curvature 
the motor being braced at the cylinder head. The back wheel is 
pulley-driven, there being means to tighten or slacken the drivino- 
band to engage or disengage the motor. This appears to be a service°- 
able machine, of better design than many. The Republic motor 
bicycle (Fig. 422) has an additional tube which connects the lower 
to the upper tube, and on a cross tube branching from this additional 
tube at right angles to it is the motor, in an upright position The 
pulley on the back wheel is band-driven, and there is a stationary 
jockey pulley attached to the seat tube. In the Marsh machine the 
motor is inclined slightly, and is fixed to the seat tube, a portion of 
which is used to conduct the exhaust gases to a silencer behind. The 




Fig. 424. —Shaw Motor Bicycle. 



































































430 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


motor chain drives the rear wheel. The Constantine bicycle has a 
horizontal air-cooled motor fixed to the lower tube and to the upright 
tube or seat tube of the frame. The motor shaft is geared to a shaft 
which chain-drives the rear wheel. The Parfaite has the motor fixed 
in an inclined position on the lower tube, a pulley on the half-speed 
shaft belt driving the rear wheel. The Motor Traction Company’s 
motor bicycle is shown by Fig. 423. The air-cooled motor is within 
the frame immediately above the bottom bracket and the ordinary 
method of driving is adopted, the machine being compact and simple. 

The Shaw bicycle (Fig. 424) is different from any of the preced¬ 
ing, inasmuch as the wheel base is lengthened and the motor is fixed 
behind the bottom bracket; the motor drives a counter-shaft which 
band-drives the rear wheel. In the Bluhm and Baur motor bicycle 
the motor crank chamber forms a part of the frame. The Minerva 
machine is an ordinary bicycle with the Minerva motor fitted in front 
of the bottom bracket, and belt-driving a pulley on the rear wheel. 

The Singer machine (Fig. 425) is of the “ motor wheel ” type, the 
motor being entirely within the rear wheel. Aluminium is largely 
used to give lightness in the construction of both wheel and motor. 
The Singer motor wheel which is employed on the bicycle just 
mentioned and on the tricycle mentioned later in this chapter (see 
p. 43b), is illustrated in detail by Fig. 426 ; and the following explana¬ 
tion of the letter references will make the construction' clear : A 
is the carburetter, L its filling plug, and C its emptying tap ; 13 is 
the adjustable atmospheric lever, E crank case, F its lubricating 
plug, and G its emptying plug; H is a cap covering axle 
end, I, cylmdei , J, exhaust box or silencer; K, valve chamber 5 
E, ignition plug, M, detachable dome over valve chamber ; N 
detachable inlet valve and seating; 0 , union containing separator 
between supply pipe and dome; P, supply pipe; Q, union between 
supply pipe and carburetter; R, magneto machine for ignition; 
S, magneto lever; T, magneto terminal; U, terminal on brass 
mtenupter guide, 3, insulated wire connection; W, interrupter 
stalk and coil spiing; \, screw for holding interrupter to vertical 
insulated block, Z, internally toothed wheel; a, exhaust valve 
spring, b, exhaust valve lifter ; c , cup, with cotter below, holding 
exhaust \alve spring , d, trunnion ; e , cam working magneto machine 
and interrupter geai , y, adjustable connecting rod between cam 
and magneto machine, cj , exhaust cam box, containing bush and 


PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


431 


part of cranked exhaust cam plunger h; i, insulation ; j, vertical 
insulated block; k t interrupter footpiece with roller at end engaging 
cam c ; l, detachable bracket and guide for interrupter gear; m, 
supply valve cover; n, lever to regulate supply valve; o, connecting 



Fig. 426 —Singer Motor Wheel. 


rod between supply valve and double action lever p; q, external 
lever connected by rods to the handle-bar; x, collar for adjusting 
interrupter. 

The Holden bicycle (Fig. 427) is the only remaining one of the 
vast number of motor bicycle arrangements not yet mentioned that 













432 


THE AUTOMOBILE 


calls lor special remark The Holden bicycle shows great originality of 
design, the four-cylinder motor driving the rear wheel direct, and being 
water-cooled. The front wheel is of the Crypto geared type, and the 
rear wheel is smaller than usual. The motor forms a part of the 
frame, and is placed very low, and on each side of it is a foot rest, 
the pedals on the front wheel being for occasional use only; indeed, 
it is probable that these pedals will not be used on future models. 

The Holden machine is novel, and is said to have given very satis¬ 
factory results. 

Tricycles and quadricycles comprise vehicles with three and four 
av heels similar in construction to cycles, there being neither suspension 
nor reversing gear, and the rider’s seat being a saddle. These vehicles 
are known as “motor cycles,” which also may comprise some 
voiturettes. The definition ol motor cycles given by the French 
regulations dealing with motor car traffic of March 10th, 1889, is 
as follows and may well be adopted:—Any vehicle with mechanical 
traction weighing less than 150 kg. (330 lb.) empty, that is, without 
passengers, fuel, water, and spare parts, is a motor cycle. 

The do Dion-Bouton tricycle is known almost universally, and its 
form is that of an ordinary tricycle, the slight weight (total 75 kg. 
that is, 165 lb.) and great rigidity being given by the steel tubular 
frame. The fork has four tubes constituting a regular armed beam 
The 1‘75 h.p. motor can perform as many as 3,000 revolutions per 
minute, and on a level can give a speed of 30 km. (18'G miles) per 
hour, and this can be increased considerably. 

Ignition is electric, and the motor itself breaks the primary 
current. The dry battery is suspended to the horizontal side of the 
frame, and the current runs from the positive pole to the left handle 
of the steering bar, which arrests or re-establishes it, passes along the 
horizontal side of the frame, where it meets with an interrupting p l U o- 
(which is pulled out when the vehicle is left at rest), runs through the 
thick wire of the coil to the trembler worked by the motor which 
every two revolutions lets it pass and immediately breaks it, sparking 
at the requisite moment in the secondary circuit, and finally it returns 
to the coil. The secondary current leaves the thin wire of the coil 
runs to the sparking plug and returns to the coil through the metal 
of the tricycle. The trembler is constituted by a metal rod carrying 
a contact which may rub against a point forming the end of the 
primary current, and at the extremity of the rod is a piece which 


PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


433 


comes into contact with the igniting cam. Usually the contact is 
away horn the point, but when the piece sinks into the notch in the 
cam, contact is established and then broken and the spark is emitted. 
By varying the moment when the piece enters the notch the time of 
spaiking that is, the lead of ignition—is altered. When ignition is so 
retarded that it does not occur until the piston is quite at the end of 
its compression stroke, the motor runs at slow speed. When ignition 
is advanced so that it occurs very perceptibly before the piston has 
reached the end of its compression stroke, there is full speed. The 
intermediary positions are for average speeds. 



On the motor shaft are two pinions, one driving the tricycle wheels 
and the other gearing with a wheel, double its diameter; keyed on the 
distributing shaft which carries the exhaust and ignition cams. The 
driving pinion actuates the toothed wheel of the differential gear 
which drives the rear tricycle wheels ; there is an aluminium gear case. 
With the motor of 1*25 h.p. the pinion had twelve teeth and the 
differential wheel 84, this giving a reduction of speed of 7. 
With wheels 65 cm. (256 in.) in diameter it requires 400 revolutions 
of the wheel—that is, 3,430 revolutions of the motor—to travel 1 km. 
(•62 mile). When the time needed for this distance was 1 minute 
20 seconds (45 km. or 27 4)6 miles per hour) the motor made 2,572 
revolutions per minute; when the tricycle ran 30 km. (18*6 miles) per 
hour 1,713 revolutions were made; when the motor made 3,000 
revolutions per minute the speed of the tricycle was 52 km. (32 3 miles) 














434 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


per hour. Tricycles with 175 h.p. motors are sold with the following 
number of teeth :— 


Type of Tricycle. 

Teeth on Motor Pinion. 

Teeth on Differential Wheel. 

Reduction. 

Tourist 

11 

106 

9-6 

Ordinary 

13 

104 

8 

Racing 

45 

102 

6-8 


Of course, the power of the motor to climb gradients varies with 
the ratio of the reduction. % To modify this ratio during a journey, 
and thus give the vehicle greater pliancy, certain demultiplic&tors 
can be adopted. 

Couget s demultiplicator has two aluminium plates forming a gear 
case, in which the motor pinion slides, and instead of transmitting 
its energy directly to the differential toothed wheel, this is an inter¬ 
mediary gearing of two pinions in the ratio 1 to 3, 4, or 5. This 
apparatus, like the following, has the advantage of disengaging the 
gear by a simple displacement of the lever. 

In the Delbruck demultiplicator and transmission gear the 
toothed wheel of the motor shaft engages with two toothed wheels 
diametrically opposite, each of which can transmit motion of 
the motor when, by aid of a rod, it is made to oscillate. In the 
Didier device, the driving shaft and axle may be connected by one or 
the othei trains of gear, which a lever with double fork throws into 
gear when required. 

The Peugeot petiol tricycles are furnished with a speed changing 
gear represented by Figs. 428 and 429. The motor shaft works 
the toothed wheel A by pinion B, the former moving on a ring 
of balls, and furnished with the interior toothing C, gearing with 
star pinions E, which themselves engage with the central pinion G. 
Pinions E are carried by axles forming one with the differential box 
]), and the pinion G can, by aid of the fork I, worked by the con¬ 
trolling lever acting on the rod H, glide along the axes K. When 
the lever is in the middle of its toothed sector, pinion G is in the 
position represented by Fig. 428 ; it rests on the bronze block with 
hexagonal section J, which itself fits by slight friction on the shaft K 
If the motor is working, the gear B, A, C, E, G turns; G turns in the 
opposite direction to A, and it is loose on shaft K; it is the disengag¬ 
ing position which will allow the motor to continue to work whilst 











PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


435 


the tricycle is still, or whilst it is being driven with the pedals without 
entraining the motor. When the speed changing lever is brought to 
the notch behind its sector, pinion G engages on the block with 
hexagonal section L, which forms one with the differential D ; then 
the pinions E and G, interdependent with this differential, can no 
longer turn the one with regard to the other (the toothing C is thus 
keyed), and all is entrained by wheel A and turns around axis K, just 
as though this wheel were fixed directly on the differential box. 



Figs. 428 and 429. —Change-speed Gear of Peugeot Tricycle. 


When, on the contrary, the lever is brought to the notch in front of 
the sector, the pinion G engages on the block with hexagonal section 
L, forming one with piece S, and by it with the tricycle bridge, thus 
being immobilised. On this pinion thus at rest the star pinions E 
work, driven by the toothing C, which, in turn, drives the differential 
box, but at a reduced angular speed. Thus, N being the number of 
teeth on C, and N 1 the number on G, the speed is to the preceding in 


the proportion of 


N 

N + N 1 . 


If N = 56 and N 1 = 26, slow speed is 


equal to about two-thirds of the greater speed. In the case where 
the wheel A has one hundred teeth, and the wheels of the tricycle 
are 65 cm. (25 h in.) in diameter, the following table can be formed :— 

c c 2 






















































































436 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


Number of Teeth on 
Motor Shaft Pinion. 

Km. Travelled per Hour. 

Maximum Gradients Climbed 
• without Pedals. 

Express Speed. 

Slow Speed. 

11 

24 

16 

12 per cent. 

12 

265 

17-5 

10 „ 

13 

39 

19 

8 „ 

14 

31 

20 - 5 

8 » 

15 

35’5 

22 

4 „ 

16 

36 

24 

3 „ 


In passing from slow to full speed, or vice versa, ignition must be 
suspended. 

The Loyal motor tricycle has remained in the experimental 



Fig. 430.— Singer Petrol Motor Tricycle. 


stage, but it is mentioned because it has worked with the Loyal 
two-cycle motor. The tricycle of the Societe Continentale d’Auto¬ 
mobiles has a motor with two opposite cylinders perpendicular to 
the planes of the wheels, making from 800 to 2,000 revolutions per 
minute. The carburetter has paddles driven by a belt mounted on 
the motor shaft, and ignition is electric. There is mechanical change 
of speed. All the tricycles, if desired, can haul a rear carriage with 
two wheels, this bringing the total number of wheels to 5; or the 
tricycle can be formed into a quadricycle by replacing the steering 
wheel by a fore-carriage. 































PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


437 


The Singer motor tricycle (Fig. 430) employs the motor wheels 
illustrated in detail by Fig. 426, p. 431, and there described. The 
extreme width of the main axle is 88 9 cm. (35 in.), and the total 
weight, as stated by the makers, is only about 63‘5 kg. (140 lb.) ? 
certainly a low weight. 

The Ariel motor tricycle is illustrated by Fig. 431, and its construc¬ 
tion may be understood with ease. A is the carburetter; B, battery; 
C, cylinder of 2J h.p. motor; D, crank chamber; E, glass reservoir 



of lubricating oil; H, compression tap; I, lever to open com¬ 
pression tap; J, lever for timing spark; K, tube connection between 
carburetter and motor; L, induction coil for battery; M, tell-tale wire 
showing quantity of petrol spirit in carburetter ; N, lever lor con¬ 
trolling supply of carburetted mixture ; 0, lever for regulating supply 
of air; P, band brake; Q, screw, at whose end is a needle valve for 
regulating supply of petrol spirit from spare tank to carburetter; R, 
sparking plug to explode mixture ; S, encased gear wheel propelled by 
small driving wheel on left side of crank chamber; T, sciew plug loi 
filling carburetter; U, inlet to lubricating oil reservoir; V, inlet valve 



























438 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


through which vapour passes from carburetter to motor cylinder; W, 
motor combustion chamber; X, handlebar switch; Y, loose plug 
switch; and Z, tube m which a portion of the hot exhaust gases 
passes through the carburetter to warm the sj)irit. The vertical 
section of motor and carburetter shown by Fig. 432 will serve to 
make the construction even clearer. In this figure, A is the car¬ 
buretter ; B, the battery; C, spare tank; D, needle valve for feeding 



Fig. 432 .—Section of Ahtel Petrol Motor. 


carburetter; E, tell-tale wire; F, mixing chamber; G, tube from car¬ 
buretter to motor; H, mixture inlet valve; I, combustion chamber; 

cylinder, 1\, piston, E, connecting rod; ]\I, crank; X, fly-wheel * 
0, exhaust valve; P, exhaust valve cam ; Q, sparking contact breaker; 
R, ignition plug; S, tube for warming petrol spirit; T, silencer; V, 
induction coil; V, handlebar switch; W, driving pinion ; and X 
compression tap. 

The Gladiator quadricycle has a two-cylinder motor of 2 h.p., and 
the rear wheels are driven by toothed gear, the fore wheels beina* 

n 






























































































RE TR OL AU TOM 0BILE VEHICLES. 


439 


moved by the steering bar at the rear, as in a tricycle. When the 
quadricycle has to be pushed along by hand, resistance is lessened by 
suppressing compression of the cylinder charge. The Morel and 
Gerard quadricycle is composed of two parallel bicycles firmly braced 
together with two cross bars; a shaft connects the rear wheel axles 
and constitutes the driving axle. 

Under the heading voiturettes are comprised automobile vehicles 
with three or four wheels, more or less similar in construction to 
a car, and having a regular seat for the passenger. The voiturette 
may not have suspension, water cooling, or reversing gear, though 



Fig. 433.—L. Boll£e Petrol Voiturette. 


Act 5 of the French Regulations compels automobiles weighing 
empty more than 250 kg. (550 lb.) to have a reversing gear. 

The Leon Bollee voiturette has three wheels, the rear driving wheel 
and the two in front, with steering pivots; these support the frame, made 
of cold-drawn steel tubes, upon which are brazed the parts carrying the 
two seats and mechanism. The motor (p. 184), transmits motion by 
three pairs of toothed wheels, each giving a speed motion to the driving 
wheel by the system mentioned on p. 271. The brake usually 
employed is an indiarubber shoe forming one with the frame, and 
with this the pulley or the driving wheel is brought into contact by 
being pushed forward by a movement which also throws the motor 
out of gear. A safety brake can be made to lock the motor fly 
wheel; and if, at this instant, the belt is stretched as far as possible, 
the driving wheel cannot turn without entraining the motor, which, 
by resisting it, acts as a brake. Recently this voiturette had the 









4*0 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


suspension represented by Fig.. 433, in which the frame rests upon 
the fore wheel, not directly, but by means of a blade spring, itself 
supported by a tube forming an axle, and uniting two steering 
wheels. This device prevents, to a great extent, the tripping of the 
rear wheel. Tripping is produced by a force which, in principle, 
should be utilised by the forward motion of the vehicle or by friction 
of the brake, and which, not being employed, throws the car to one 
side. In the suspended voiturette, sudden lateral displacement 
causes an inclination of the rear wheel, and compression of the fore 
spring; in this compression the force just alluded to is nullified, and 
tripping does not occur. The Bollee voiturette also is made with two 
cylinders, one placed on each side, and furnished with a carburetter. 
The motor is started by a crank mounted, not on the motor shaft, but 
on the intermediary shaft. The fly wheel and the regulator are 
protected by the sheet-iron work, and there are two brake shoes 
instead of one. 

The Serin petrol voiturette evidently is a copy of the Bollee 
car, though modified somewhat. The 4 h.p. motor has a horizontal 
cylinder, electric ignition, and water-cooling by thermosiphon (the 
tank forms a mud-guard around the driving wheel); and the 
motor is placed immediately behind the fore axle in the axis of 
the car. This very low position inside the triangular support is 
believed to give stability and prevent tripping, a defect with vehicles 
having only one rear wheel. Power is transmitted to this wheel by 
a long side belt which, by aid of two sets of pulleys and toothed gear, 
gi\es two speeds, 15 km. and 30 km. (9'3 miles and 18*6 miles) per 
hour. The steering is straight, or with handle ; the vehicle has two 
seats, and weighs 238 kg. (523-6 lb.). 

The Hurtu tri-voiturette is driven by a de Dion-Bouton motor of 
1 75 h.p. placed near the only front wheel, which is both driving and 
steeling. The motor chain drives a shaft, whose motion is trans¬ 
mitted to the axle of the wheel by a set of pulleys and a belt, which 
automatically stretches a spring. On this axle and in the wheel nave 
is keyed a globe carrying four slides, in each of which is a ball 
placed at the end of a special notch. Motion is thus transmitted to 
the wheel by rolling with very great smoothness. A pedal brake 
stretches the belt and locks one of the transmission pulleys, whilst 
the shoes act on the rear wheels. The weight is 115 kg. (253 lb. ), and 
two speeds are 12 km. and 15 km. (7 4 miles and 9 3 miles). 



PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


441 


The Farinan voiturette has the appearance of the Bollee ; trans¬ 
mission is by belt and chains, and there are four speeds. The 
voiturette of the Compagnie Francaise cles Cycles et Automobiles 
is of the Bollee voiturette type, but with two seats side by side. 
I here is change of speed with progressive engagement, and instant¬ 
aneous disengagement by means of extensible pulleys. The two 
speeds are 12 km. and 24 km. (7'4 miles and 14’8 miles) per hour; 
intermediary speeds are obtained by altering the lead of ignition. 
The weight is 310 kg. (682 lb.). 

The Kane-Pennington tricycle has the form of a car, two wheels in 
front being steering and the rear one driven by the inventors’ motor. 
(See pp. 176 and 178.) 

The Decauville voiturette is the first of the four-wheel voiturettes 
to be described. The motor (p. 187) in the rear has two vertical cylinders, 
the one behind the other, in the middle plane of the car. The horizontal 
motor shaft is coupled to another shaft, the coupling being lodged in 
the fly-wheel, and thence the motion is transmitted to a secondary 
longitudinal shaft by two trains of toothed wheels giving two speeds; 
finally, motion is given by two bevel pinions to the axle of the rear 
wheels. There is no reversing gear, and ignition is electric. The 
primary circuit starts from the accumulator and runs to the double 
coil furnished with a trembler, thence to the ignition cam mounted 
on the distributing shaft, passing by an insulated terminal which 
establishes and breaks the current so as to make it feed both 
cylinders. From the cam it passes through the bulk to the steering 
bar, where an interruptor is lodged, and finally returns to the 
accumulator. A secondary circuit passes from each coil to the 
corresponding sparking plug, and returns to the coil through the 
bulk. The lead in ignition is modified for both cylinders simul¬ 
taneously. The motor is started by an ingenious device operated 
from the driver’s seat. The frame, made of hollow tubes, rests at the 
rear directly on the wheel axle, by four ball bearings, and in front on 
the divided axle, by a large blade spring perpendicular to the axis of 
the car and two spiral springs acting on the journal pivots. The 
Steering is controlled as in the Bollee car, but with a handle. 

The Elan voiturette has its motor (p. 170) placed vertically a little in 
front of the rear axle, and the fly-wheel has a coupling. Four pairs of 
toothed wheels give four speeds, and there is reverse motion. All 
the mechanism and the differential are enclosed in a case. Power 


•442 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


transmission to the rear driving wheels is by endless chains with rollers 
and stretchers. Steerage is by divided axle and a steering handle¬ 
bar. The wheels have tangent spokes and pneumatic tyres, and the 
bearings have large balls. The frame axles and other parts are of 
steel tubes, and the two brakes act on the differential shaft and on the 
two driving wheels. The motor can be stopped by interrupting igni¬ 
tion with the steering handlebar. The weight ready for the road, 
with 10 1. (17 6 pts.) of petrol spirit in the tank, is 310 kg. (682 lb.). 
Ihe lour speeds range from 6 km. to 25 km. (37 miles and 15‘5 miles), 
with intermediary rates obtained by altering the lead of ignition. The 
constructor maintains that the cost per car kilometre does not exceed 
0‘5d. (0‘Sd. per car mile), lubrication and repairs included. The 1899 
type had a double exhaust for lull speed, and cooling was improved 
by increasing the wings or flanges and adding a fan worked by 
the motor, which drives fresh air to the cylinder. 

Ihe Tauzin voiturette has a Papillon motor (p. 167) placed vertically 
behind the lore axle, the motor shaft running all along the vehicle, 
carrying the engaging and disengaging gear, bevel pinions, reversing 
gear, and speed changing pinions, always gearing with the toothed 
wheels on the differential shaft which carries the driving wheels, 
and successively made interdependent with this shaft by a key 
sliding inside. The three speeds are 9 km., 17 km., and 28 km. 
(5 6 miles, 10'o6 miles, and 17'4 miles) per hour. The tubular 
frame is reinforced by cross bars, and the wheels are of metal with 
pneumatic tyres. The mechanism is fixed on the frame supporting 
the body by large Cee springs in the rear and spiral springs in front. 

The Barisien petrol voiturette has two de Dion-Bouton motors 
of 175 h.p. placed vertically in front of the frame. This position 
facilitates cooling, which is aided further by the current of air 
driven upon the motors by a panel inclined at 45° which is placed 
above. For exceptional cases a small fan between the two cylinders 
can be worked when required by aid of a friction pulley, and in the 
centie of this fan is the mouth of a pipe which conveys water from a 
drop-counting reservoir holding 200 g. (7 oz.); this sprayed water 
increases absorption of heat by the ambient air. The motors drive 
by gearing, a longitudinal shaft, which passes between them, its 
motion being transmitted by bevel pinions to the differential shaft 
united by chains to the driving wheels. At various points of this 
transmission there are ball and socket joints, which prevent all 


PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


443 


wedging of the shafts in their bearings when the roughness of the 
ground causes some alteration in the shape of the frame. There is 
reversing gear and three speeds, speed-changing gear being enclosed 
with the differential in an aluminium case. The brakes lock in the 
rear as well as in the. front, and the degree of locking is not 
influenced by the flexion of the springs. The body is completely 
suspended, and the total weight is 250 kg. (550 lb.). 



The Cyrano voiturette has a Klaus motor with two horizontal 
cylinders, one on each side of the frame {see Fig. 434), with flanges 
and heads cooled by a current of water which a centrifugal pump 
drives into a radiator. The electric ignition is operated by a coil 
without trembler of the de Dion-Bouton type. Transmission is by 
aluminium cones (with four steps, each giving a speed) to the 
secondary shaft, and from the latter to the driving axle in the rear 
by toothed gear. There is toothed reversing gear with a disengaging 
position, and the motor is started from the driver’s seat. Drum 
brakes act on the motor wheels and shoe brakes on the pneumatic 


























444 


TIIE AUTOMOBILE. 


tyres. A braking .effect also can be produced by shutting the 
exhaust valve. In Fig. 434, which shows the underframe and 
mechanism of the Cyrano voiturette, A A are the motors, B B 
aluminium cones, C lead at ignition cam, D driver’s seat, E E water 
cooler, F F drum brakes, G radiator, FT pedal, I steering mechanism, 
K K exhaust valve rods, L water reservoir, M coupling lever, N 



petrol spirit reservoir, 0 suction valves, P accumulators, Q coils, R 
starting lever, S S exhaust valves, T T sparking plugs, U handle of 
carburetter, V chain controlling the belt fork, W axle° X piping, Y Y 
cylinder lubricator, and Z Z to-and-fro motion of the primary current 
The cylinders have a diameter of 100 mm. (3'9 in.), and a throw of 
ISO mm. (7 in.), and at a speed ot 300 revolutions the motor develops 
5 h.p. The speeds are 8 km., 16 km., 24 kin., and 32 km. (4 9, 9 9, 
14-9, and 18'9 miles) per hour. Ready for the road, it weighs 380 k°\ 
(836 lb.). Popp makes cars with a Klaus 3 h.p. motor. 

The Krebs voiturette (Panhard and Levassor) has a Krebs motor 































































































































































PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


445 



forming, with, the transmission gear, a compact bod}', which is placed 
in an iron frame at the back of the car. Its transversal hollow 
driving shaft is prolonged beyond a cone coupling by three pinions 
constantly gearing with three toothed wheels keyed on the dif¬ 
ferential shaft. The three pinions can be made successively inter¬ 
dependent with their shaft by a pawl placed inside, and this is under 
the action of the lever for changing speed. The pinion thus keyed 


Fi<>- 436. —De Dion-Botjton Petrol Voiturette. 

O 

entrains the wheel corresponding to it by means of a pawl and 
ratchet gear; but as they do not allow the shaft to drive the wheels, 
those which are not moved by the useful pinion acquire only a 
relatively slight rotation, due merely to friction of the naves on the 
shaft; thus considerable wear is avoided. Backward running of the 
car, controlled by the speed-changing lever, is assured by friction 
rollers not shown in the diagram (Fig. 435). Steering is operated by 
a fore-carriage with a pivot worked by a lever. The wooden wheels 
with pneumatic tyres turn under the car, and necessitate the great 
wheel base, which besides favours stability. A lever works the tyre 
brake shoes, and jaw brakes act on the differential shaft. The motor 








446 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


normally makes 800 revolutions per minute, and gives an average 
speed ot 25 km. (15'5 miles) per hour; the car can run 125 km. 
(77 miles) without requiring new supplies; the weight is 350 kg. 
(m 0 lb.), lhe 4 h.p. motor placed in the front has two opposite hori¬ 
zontal cylinders, whose connecting rods are united to the same crank 
pm, so that the movable parts always occupy symmetric positions, 
and balance each other, this greatly reducing vibration. Ignition is 
electric, and cooling is by a current of water with radiator and pump. 
There is toothed transmission gear, three speeds and reverse motion, 



1 ig. 43/. Scheme of de Dion-Bouton Petrol Voiturette. 


and an accelerator is employed. Fig. 435 is a sectional view showing the 
motor and mechanism of the Panhard and Levassor petrol voiturette. 

The de Dion-Bouton voiturette (Fig. 436) has a motor similar to 
that of the tricycle (p. 185) by the same maker, but it is larger and gives 
3 h.p., it is placed vertically under the back seat. Cooling is by flanges 
and a current of water driven by a pump around the cylinder head, The 
water being cooled in a radiator at the front of the car ; it suffices to 
replace the water evaporated, this being only a' glassful about every 
100 km. (62 miles). The new type of atomising carburetter (p. 91) 
is used, and it allows the inlet valve to be almost shut, as in simple 
surface carburetters. The shafts are coupled with friction cones 
dipping into oil. Toothed transmission gives the speeds of 12 km. 
and 30 .km. (7-45 miles and 18 6 miles) per hour, intermediary 
speeds being obtained by varying the lead of ignition. In the 

















































PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


447 


experiment car the driving wheels were worked, as in the tricycle, 
by an axle furnished with the differential gear, but now there is a 
divided axle with a universal joint. Reverse 
motion and starting from the seat 



are provided. The suspension at 
the rear is on nipper 


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springs {.see Fig. 437), and in front, by means of two Cee half-springs 
resting on a transversal spring. The four equal wheels are of metal, 




448 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


and have pneumatic tyres. There are two plate compressors. Coup¬ 
ling and speed changing are operated by aid of a fly wheel; the 
weight is 250 kg. (550 lb.). Mention may here be made of the de 
Dion-Bouton 8 h.p. car; it is shown in general view by Fig. 438. 

The Peugeot firm exhibited at the Tuileries in 1899 a voiturette 
which, as regards frame and mechanism, is a reduced model of its 
large cars. The 3 h.p. motor, with ignition by tubes or sparking 
plug, can give a speed of 25 km. (15*5 miles) per hour on a level, and 
the two intermediary speeds are 8 km. and 16 km. (49 miles and 
9'9 miles); also there is reverse motion. Ready for the road, the car 
weighs 350 kg. (770 lb.). 

Turgan and Foy petrol voiturettes are of two kinds, belt-driven 
and chain-driven. These are driven by the special balanced motor 
illustrated by Fig. 137, p. 166, and there described. The construction 
of the underframes and the system of transmission can be gathered 
from Figs. 439 and 440. Steel tubes form the underframe, and the 
wheels have metal naves, wood spokes and wood felloes. Steering is 
effected by the ordinary inclined pillar and worm gear. There are 
four speeds, besides reverse motion. 

The Delahaye voiturette has a 4 h.p. motor, with a speed of from 
25 km. to 30 km. (15*5 miles to 18’6 miles) per hour, its system being 
quite similar to that ol the cars of the same builder to be described 
later (p. 458), except that it has only one transmission belt. 

The Morisse voiturette has toothed transmission and belt, fore 
driving axle, which is displaced by aid of a lever to engage or 
disengage by stretching or loosening the belt; whilst the steering 
wheel is in the rear. 

The Foucher and Delachanal voiturette has transmission by cone 
pulleys, bevel gear making it possible to dish the wheels. 

The Goret voiturette has hardly run, it is thought, but its 
interesting feature is its six-cycle motor (p. 194) placed vertically 
between the two axles and its plate transmission. 

The Faugere voiturette has a motor with two horizontal 
cylinders; transmission is by belt, toothed gear always engaged, and 
friction cones ; there are three speeds, and starting is operated from 
the seat. This vehicle might almost be classed with ordinary cars. 

The Pittsburg voiturette (American make) is rather a quadricycle, 
because the driver sits on a saddle at the back; but in front there is 
one seat. The Walker and Hutton (Scarborough) voiturette has a 


449 


i 


PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


4 h.p. motor and belt transmission; the tubular frame rests on axles 
through nipper springs, and the body is suspended on the frame. 

Delivery automobile tricycles' and voiturettes carry goods of light 
weight. The 1899 motor trials in France had a class for such 
vehicles carrying a useful load of at least 50 kg. (110 lb.). 

The Lanty, Hommen and Dumas delivery voiturette has a 21 h.p. 



Fig. 439. —Turgan and Foy Belt-driven Petrol Car. Fig. 440. —Turgan and Foy 

Chain-driven Petrol Car. 


motor with horizontal cylinder, the motor performing 600 revolutions 
per minute; ignition is electric, air cooling by flanges, and the 
motor is placed between the two axles on the frame suspended in 
front, as described (see p. 348). There is belt transmission, with 
reversing motion. A body 1 m. (39*27 in.) long, 83 cm. (32*6 in.) 
wide, and 88 cm. (34*6 in.) high, is suspended above the frame behind 
the driver’s seat. The car weighs 450 kg. (990 lb.), carries 150 kg 
(330 lb.) of goods, and can run at a speed of from 8 km. to 15 km 

(4*9 miles to 9*3 miles) per hour 

The Columbia petrol tricycle manufactured at the Pope works 


D D 








































































































































































450 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


Hartford, U.S.A., has a cylindrical motor, de Dion-Bouton type, 
but larger (it gives, it seems, 2 h.p. per 1,500 revolutions); the 
inlet and exhaust valves are worked mechanically, and the motor is 
carried at the rear on the right of the driver. Toothed gear drives 
the motor shaft at speeds per hour of from 6 km. to 8 km. or from 
20 km. to 25 km. (3'7 miles to 4'9 miles or 124 miles to 155 miles). 
At starting the motor is disengaged, and the cycle begun by a pedal. 



Fie:. 441 .—Mechanism oe Pan- 

o 

HARD AND LevASSOR PETROL 

Car. 


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When the motor has begun work, engaging is accomplished by the 
gradual contact exerted by a steel catch, turning on the motor shaft, 
on a metal cone on the same shaft as the toothed gear. The 
frame, formed of a rectangular tube, carries the body, and for steering 
there is only the wheel in front like that of a tricycle. The total 
weight is from 400 kg. to 500 kg. (880 lb. to 1,100 lb.). 

Automobile vehicles that are actual carriages now may be given 
attention. The de Dion-Bouton car already has been mentioned. 

The Panhard and Levassor petrol car usually has the Phoenix 
motor placed in front, though it can be at the back or in the centre 
according to the style of car, but it is always vertical (see Figs. 442 







































































































































451 


PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


and 443). When it is in front it is easy to inspect, as far as 
pos S1 ble dust-proof, and without inconvenience in loading the two- 
pivot steering axle. The longitudinal driving shaft is united end to 
end by a friction coupling to parallel shaft, which carries three 
or lour pinions, each giving a special rate of speed, namely, 4 km., 
>S km., 15 km., and 30 km. (2 48 miles, 4 .9 miles, 98 miles, and 
18 (i miles) per hour, when the pinions are brought successively 



into contact with the toothed wheels keyed on an intermediary shaft 
fixed horizontally above the first. This shaft carries a pinion 
which works by two other bevel pinions (giving forward or reverse 
motion as required), a second transversal shaft carrying a differential 
gear, motion being transmitted by endless chains to the toothed 
wheels fixed to the spokes of the rear wheels. The transmission 
system is illustrated by Fig. 441. The motor, connecting rods 
and cranks, and the trains of toothed wheels are enclosed in a 
case with oil. The rectangular frame of profile steel, sometimes 
with wood inside, always firmly assembled and intertied, gives a 
strong and easy support for the body. The wheels, with metal 
or wood naves, have always wooden spokes, and the tyres are 












































































































































452 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


solid indiarubber or pneumatic. There are two brakes, one having 
shoes acting on the rear wheels, and the other with drum being 
mounted on the differential shaft; the latter, and sometimes both, 
are worked by mechanisms which begin by disengaging the motor. 
The cooling water reservoir and the exhaust abating cylinder are 
on the body. In the front, under the lubricators, are the air- 
governing cock for the carburetted mixture and the petrol spirit 
tank. The driver steers with his left hand by aid of a bar which 
acts on two pivot axles ; a recent improvement is to adopt a steering 
fly-wheel instead (see Fig. 443). At the driver’s right hand is the 
lever for changing speeds, that for advance motion and stopping, 
and the shoe brake lever. The engaging gear and band brake are 
worked by the foot. 

Panhard and Levassor constructed, in 1890, carriages with two 
seats; these had Daimler li h.p. motors with two cylinders, giving 
speeds of 5 km., 10 km., and 16 km. (31 miles, 6'2 miles, and 9*9 
miles) per hour. In 1892 Panhard carriages began to have solid 
indiarubber tyres. The Panhard firm had its first public success in 
the 1894 Paris-Pouen race, and the following year a Panhard phaeton, 
with 4 h.p. Phoenix motor, was first in the Paris-Bordeaux race, the 
performance being a revelation, 1,190 km. (about 740 miles) being 
covered in 48 hours 47 minutes. From this date the Phoenix motor 
took the place of the old Daimler. The Paris-Marseilles race was 
won by the firm with a car having a motor of 6 h.p., and the average 
speed was 2394 km. (1487 miles) per hour. In 1897 the Paris- 
Dieppe race was won by Gilles-Hourgriere with a car that was 
similar to the one that in the following year won the Paris- 
Amsterdam race. The Panhard firm now constructs all kinds of 
cars with motors of 6, 8, 10, 12, and 16 h.p. A car with two seats 
has a tank large enough to carry the amount of petrol spirit needed 
for a journey of at least 100 km. (62 miles); a sufficient supply for 
300 km. (186 miles) can be carried easily. The efficiency of the car 
is about 62 per cent, of the work indicated at the cylinders. 
The cost for petrol spirit on an average road is, approximately, 0\5d. 
per km. (0'8d. per mile) for a car with four seats and 6 h.p. motor. 
At the heavy vehicle trials in 1897 this firm ran a petrol omnibus 
which carried fourteen persons and their luggage, the latter being- 
on top of the vehicle. The 12 h.p. Phoenix motor, with four 
cylinders 90 m. (3A in.) bore and 135 mm. (5 3 in.) piston stroke, and 


PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


453 



performing 750 revolutions per minute, was placed below the metal 
rame between the fore wheels. The connecting rods of the motors 
worked two by two one of the shaft cranks, so that there was an 
explosion at each half 

revolution. The four - . . 

speeds were 4 km., 7 
km., 11 km., and 16 
km. (2-4 miles, 4*3 miles, 

(78 miles, and 9‘9 miles) 
per hour. Reverse mo¬ 
tion is provided. The 
petrol spirit reservoirs 
are placed against the 
front mudguard, and 
the water tank is under 
the car. The weight 
empty was 2,095 kg 
(4,009 lb.), ready for 
the road and with a 
useful load of 1 ton the 
weight was 3,400 kg. 

(7,480 lb.), but it was 
built for a useful load 
of 1*4 tons. Ratio of 
useful load to dead 
weight, 0-415; to total 
weight, 0-294. Dia¬ 
meter of fore wheels 
is 80 cm. (314 in.) ; 
rear wheels, 1 m. 2 cm. 

(40T6 in.) ; common 
width of tyres, 8 cm. 

(3-15 in.); wheel base, 

T9 m. (6 ft. 3 in.); total 
length, 4-5 m. (14 ft. 

9 in.); width, all projections included, 21 m. (6 ft. 11 in.). The omnibus 
carries petrol spirit and water for a run of 100 km. (62 miles). At 
the Versailles trial of 1899 the Panhard firm ran an omnibus-salon. 

Peugeot petrol carriages formerly had Daimler motors which were 


Fig. 443. —Panhard and Levassor New Petrol Car. 











454 


TEE AUTOMOBILE. 


placed vertically in the rear, but they are now driven by the 
Peugeot horizontal motor with a power of 4, 5, 6, or 7 h.p. or more, 
the. power usually being calculated to assure, on a good level road, a 
speed of from 25 km. to 35 km. (15 5 miles to 21 *7 miles), and from 
5 km. to 6 km. (31 miles to 3 7 miles) on rising gradients of 8 to 10 
per cent. The carburetter (pp. 97-99) generally is on the right of the 



cylinders. The motor (p. 148) is placed between the two rear wheels a 
little above the axle in the median plane of the car, the motor shaft 
being transversal, and connected by a friction coupling to another 
shaft placed in its prolongation, which drives by toothed gearing the 
shaft with four pinions for changing speed engaging with four toothed 
wheels keyed on the differential shaft. Reverse motion of the car 
is obtained by placing a pinion between the two wheels of one of 
the pairs of toothed wheels. The driving shaft has a fly-wheel, 
inside which is the friction coupling worked by a pedal. A pinion 
and a toothed wheel transmit the motion of the motor shaft to an 










































































































































PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


455 


intermediary shaft, which carries the speed-changing 1 pinions gearing 
with the toothed wheels keyed on the differential shaft; also it has a 
pulley on the end which, under the action of a lever (movable on a 
notched sector), runs the pinions along the shaft and changes the 
engaged gear. For this object the pulley has a rather wide neck, 
having at its bottom a sinuous groove. A cylindrical finger, con¬ 
nected to the bar which controls the frame of pinions, is shifted 
crossways to the car when the pulley is turned under the action of a 
lever. In a certain position it brings the reversing pinion between the 


A 



two wheels. Two pinions, mounted at the ends of the differential 
shaft, drive by chains the toothed wheels on the naves of the driving 
wheels. Two plate compressors, forming one with the same naves, are 
controlled by a lever; a plate compressor, mounted on the differential 
shaft, is worked by a pedal, which begins by throwing the motor 
out of gear. The transmission gear on one type of Peugeot car is 
illustrated by Fig. 444. The underframe has been described (see 
p. 351), and through its tubes water is driven by aid of a centrifugal 
pump as far as the radiator fixed in front of the vehicle, so as to 
receive fresh air at first hand. The wheels, with straight metal spokes 
6 mm. (*23 in.) in diameter, work in traction and have ball bearings 
(one row for light cars, and two, or even three, for heavy ones). As 
the fore axle is loaded but very slightly, at least in cars without any 
radiator, steering is very smooth. The Peugeot firm manufactures 











































456 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


various models of fashionable cars. As heavy vehicles, it constructs 
the omnibus and the brake with eight seats. The cost of petrol for the 
heavy vehicle is from 0'57d. to 0'85d. per km. (*62 mile) for a 4 to 6 
h.p. motor; repairs are estimated at 0‘47d. per km., including the 
pneumatic tyres. The two-seat coupe, which was the only petrol 
vehicle in the Paris cab trials of 1898, gave excellent work at a 
greater sjDeed than that of electric cabs, though it was very expensive. 
To decrease the expense, the Peugeot firm substituted for tube ignition 
the following method. A cam on the motor shaft is arranged so as 
to give a lead and delay at ignition {see Fig. 445) by moving a lever in 
the place formerly occupied by the slackener. Thus at each revolu¬ 
tion of the shaft there is a sparking, which is distributed to the two 
cylinders by the slackener, which is fixed on the cylinder head in the 
place of the burner lantern necessary for tube ignition, and consists of 
a simple oscillating needle mounted with hard friction on the axis 
controlling the trippers; it receives the secondary current of the coil, 
and in its oscillation from right to left this needle touches two 
contacts, each connected with a sparking plug. The system has this 
peculiar feature, that the motion of the needle can be limited 
independently of that of its axis, though all their movements begin 
at the same time. Regulation consists in making the contacts of the 
needle last longer than those of the cam; the secondary current only 
passes when it has a fixed path, and all exterior sparking is avoided. 
A circuit breaker enables the current to be cut off when the motor 
does not work, as when running down a gradient. With the Societe 
Le Carbone’s dry battery, type V S H, giving 75 ampere hours, and 
a Rossel coil consuming from -05 to -07 ampere hour, a duration of 
from 800 to 1,000 hours of work can be reckoned on. 

The Anglo-French Company places its horizontal Benz motor 
longitudinally over and behind the driving axle. Ignition usually is 
electric, and the driver cannot modify the lead from his seat. Trans¬ 
mission is by two belts (each giving a speed) to a secondary shaft 
carrying the differential, and from the latter to the driving wheels by 
endless chains. Reverse motion is obtained by a crossed belt. For 
steering, a divided axle in front is worked by a steering bar or hand 
wheel under the driver’s right hand, the driver sitting on the left of 
the car. A pedal brake acts simultaneously on the differential shaft 
by a rope and on the wheel tyres by shoes. Also the car can be 
stopped by shutting off the supply of carburetted mixture. The 


PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


457 


Anglo-French Company now furnishes its cars with two-cylinder 
motors; its specialite is a delivery car. 

The Benz cars are light, a two-seat phaeton driven by a 3 h.p. 
motor, performing 300 revolutions per minute, weighing hardly more 
than 300 kg. or 400 kg. (660 lb. or 880 lb.). The first Benz patent 
for cars has the date March 25, 1886. Roger introduced them into 
France about 1888. 



The Maison Parisienne, who at present is the licensee in France of 
the Benz motors, manufactures the type just described and at the 
same time some varied models, including a car carrying an atomising 
carburetter and a two-cylinder motor of 5 h.p. making 900 revolu¬ 
tions. Transmission is mixed, and two belts each give by aid of a 
toothed wheel device two speeds. The two Lyons firms (Audibert- 
Lavirotte and Rochet-Schneider) also make the Benz car, the motor 
having either one or two cylinders. 

The Delaliaye carriage has a motor (p. 154) with pump and radiator 
placed on the frame at H (Fig. 446); the frame can carry all kinds of 
bodies. There is belt transmission gearing, and full and average speed 

















































































































458 


TIIE AUTOMOBILE. 


with toothed wheels for slow speed and reversing. A 6 h.p. motor 
gives a six-seat car speeds of 8 km., 18 km., and 30 km. (4’97 miles, 
Jhl miles, and 18'6 miles) per hour; and an 8 h.p. motor speeds of 
10 km., 21 km., and 36 km. (6 - 2 miles, 13 miles, and 223 miles). The 
wheels are wooden. 

Fig. 446 is a diagram of the under frame and mechanism ol a 
Delahaye petrol car. E shows the bubbling carburetter in which the 
level of the petrol spirit is regulated by the distributor-float F ; after 
passing through G and being heated around the cylinders H the air 
enters the carburetter through the inlet G 1 . It passes out by I 1 to 
reach the tap I, which, controlled by handle L, adds to it a certain 
amount of pure air which enters at I 11 ; the carburetted mixture passes 
in a quantity regulated by valve K worked by pedal L 1 to the inlet 
valve C C, it is consumed in cylinders H, and the products make their 
exit by exhaust valves D D controlled by distributing shaft B turning 
at an angular velocity half that of the motor shaft A. Driving fly 
wheels 1 and 2 carry the full speed and average speed belts l 1 and 2 1 , 
sets of pulleys keyed and loose on the secondary shaft M correspond¬ 
ing to those two speeds; loose pulley 3 on the secondary shaft is 
interdependent with the pair of toothed wheels 4, 4 1 , which, when the 
average speed belt is mounted on the pulley 3, drives shaft M 1 ; 
pinions 5 and 6 are keyed on shaft M 1 , which by aid of lever S can 
successively be brought into contact with wheels 5 1 and 6 1 to give 
•slow speed and reversing motion, 6 1 being for this purpose furnished 
with interior teeth. N is the differential shaft upon which is a 
compressor brake worked by pedal N 1 ; R R, chain pinions; O, lever 
controlling compressor brakes on the naves of rear wheels; P, chain 
controlling steerage. A ratchet is mounted on the nave of the rear 
wheel to prevent recoil. 

1 he Hurtu-Diligeon car, with two or three places, has a 4 h.p 
horizontal motor started by a device suppressing the compression 
No premature firing is to be feared, ignition being delayed and only 
taking place in the direction of the impulsion after the dead point 
has been passed. The transmission shaft is mounted on balls; the 
v heels have metal spokes and smooth spokes with oil bath 

G. Kichard’s car employs electric ignition current which comes 
from an improved dry battery. In the ordinary Benz system a good 
conductive contact rests on an insulating wood fibre disc, which is 
furnished with conductive copper on one part of its circumference ; 


PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 459 

when the copper comes under the contact the current passes. To 
assure a more certain passage, G. Richard places the contact between 
a copper screw ending in an irido-platinum point and a drop of the 
same metal on a plate forming a spring. When the cam mounted 
on the distributing shaft lifts the plate the two platinum points 
come into contact, and at the same time, owing to a torsion of the 
plate, a relative displacement is produced between them; thus they 
are cleaned and favour the passage of the current the better. Trans¬ 
mission is by belt giving two speeds; a single handle, instead of two 



D 

Fig. 447. — Gr. Richard Petrol 
Car. 


as in Benz cars, suffices to displace the belts for full and average speed. 
The loose pulleys give slow speed and reverse motion. 

Fisr. 447 shows underframe and mechanism of the G. Richard 

o 

car. A is the horizontal two-cylinder 7 h.p. motor (p. 156), trans¬ 
mitting its energy to the toothed wheel box B, by means of a 
single belt C; B, toothed wheel box controlled by handle 0 for the 
four forward speeds, and by handle P for reverse motion ; C, belt; D, 
steering wheel on vertical pillar; E, petrol spirit tank; F, multiple 
lubricator; H, pedal for disengaging and brake on differential; behind 
H is the pedal of the second brake on the wheel collars; the lever of a 
hand brake is connected to J; K, L, M, water tank, pump, and collar; 
R, motor accelerator ; S, silencer. 

Cam bier cars are of three types. The first has a one- or two- 
cylinder motor (p. 156), whose power varies from 4 to 12 h.p.; there 
are from two to twenty seats at the back. Two changes of speed are 
provided by toothed gears, and reversing is by belt. A pump circulates 
















































460 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


water through a flanged radiator, so that the supply has to be renewed 
only every 150 km. (93 miles). The second type of car has the 
same motor as the preceding, but placed in front, controlling by belts 

a transmission 
placed in the rear, 
which gives three 
speeds by toothed 
wheels and reverse 
motion by belt. 
The underframe 
can carry all kinds 
of bodies. The 
third type of car 
has a motor with 
two cylinders ; its 
power is 6, 8,’ 10, 
or 12 h.p., and it 
works the sjieed- 
changing shaft by 
a bronze gearing 
cut out of the bulk 
and a raw leather 
pinion. The train 
of gear for changes 
of speed and re¬ 
verse motion con¬ 
sists of forged steel 
toothed wheels cut 
mechanic ally. 
Cam bier also builds 
omnibuses carrying 
a useful load of 3 
tons, the three- 
cylinder horizontal 
motor giving 30 

h.p. at 450 revo¬ 
lutions per minute. It has two systems of ignition ; electric for start- 

mg (because the spaik can moie easily explode a badly compressed 
mixture than can tubes), and incandescent tubes when on the road. 





























































PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


461 


Bonnafous engaging gear is used, and toothed transmission. The 
car is started at the rate of 4 km. (2‘48 miles) per hour, and the 
average speed of running is 17 km. (lOA miles) per hour. 

Be Dietrich cars 
on the A. Bollee 
system have a Bollee 
motor (p. 96) of 6J 
h.p., placed hori¬ 
zontally above the 
fore axle (sec Figs. 448 
and 449). The motor 
shaft, perpendicular 
to the axis of the 
vehicle, drives by pul¬ 
leys and indiarubber 
belt a parallel shaft 
situated at the back 
of the car. The belt 
moves at a nearly 
constant speed, and 
engages and disen¬ 
gages the motor with 
the rest of the trans¬ 
mission gear. The 
four speeds and re¬ 
verse motion are 
obtained by trains 
of wheels connecting 
the belt shaft with 
the differential shaft, 
whose motion is 
transmitted to the 
driving wheels by a 
chainless system al¬ 
ready described (see 
p. 279), which enables 
the wooden wheels to have metal naves. The underframe is a rect¬ 
angular metal frame resting on the axles by springs with very large 
plates; all the mechanism being below, various types of body can 


























































































































































































































462 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


be employed. The band brake compresses in both directions. Figs. 
448 and 449 show respectively elevation and plan of the de Dietrich 
car, constructed on the A. Bollee system section. In these figures, f is 
the motor ; a a 1 , burners; b, starting gear of motor ; m, crank of motor 
shaft; A f fly wheel; p, pulley; G, fork to move belts ; F F 1 , pulleys 
loose and keyed on secondary shaft; B 1 B 1 B 1 B 1 , pinions to gear 
respectively (to give four speeds) with the wheels B B B B, mounted 
on the shaft of differential H: K, brake mounted on differential; 
motion of the differential shaft is transmitted to the toothed wheels 
M on the driving wheels by bevel pinions and shafts A and D, 
hinged so as to always compensate for the flexion of the springs. 
The hand steering ivheel controls the fore wheels by connecting rods 
hinged by tempered ball-and-socket joints and pressed by a spring. 
J is the speed-changing lever; G 1 , lever for reverse motion; and 
H 1 , lever for engaging and disengaging and locking the brake Iv. 
The very few cars constructed by A. Bollee himself are racing 
vehicles, to which he gave the shape of torpedo boats ; these have but 
little air resistance, but are not conducive to elegance and comfort, 
necessities in touring cars. 

As a rule, the rear position of the speed-changing shafts will 
always make the task of the carriage-builder difficult with the Bollee 
car; however, the convenient position, in the de Dietrich cars, of the 
mechanism (transmission in rear and motor in front) must be 
commended ; but the chainless system is not preferable to the chain, 
and certainly it is noisier. 

Mors cars are of several types. One had a motor with two 
opposite cylinders. It was a light car with stepped cone speed¬ 
changing gear and a belt and toothed reversing gear, which seems to 
have been abandoned, or at least modified, to make the No. 4 type. The 
second type had a motor with four cylinders inclined at 45° (see 
p. 157), and intended to economise space and to facilitate lubrication. 
The motor is at the back of the car, and its shaft, placed transversally 
above the gear axle, works by two sets of pulleys and belts the 
intermediary shaft, which is furnished with engaging gear and 
differential, and works the rear driving wheels by chains. The belts 
are stretched by sliding the bearings of the secondary shaft along the 
side bars of the car. The driver can make them slide in this way 
equally on both sides by aid of a crank within reach of his hand, and 
toothed wheels. Usually the slow-speed belt is slightly lighter than 


PETBOL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


463 


the full-speed one, because it transmits a greater effort, and is obliged 
to move a pulley of smaller diameter. The intermediary speeds 
between the two obtained mechanically are given by the moderator 
controlled by a small lever placed on the side of the car, which 
vaiies the amount of carburetted mixture admitted to the cylinders. 
These cars allow great rates of speed, and give great pliancy in 
lunning. Reverse motion is obtained by toothed wheels in large 
vehicles, and by star pinions in small vehicles: see Fig. 450, in 
which X X is the intermediary shaft, upon which is keyed the slow- 



speed pulley A, which inside carries the toothed wheel B. This gears 
constantly with the star pinions C C mounted on a hollow shaft, 
forming one with the brake pulley D. On the other side these 
same pinions are in contact with the toothed wheels E E, ir mnted 
on another hollow shaft carrying at its other end the clutch coupling 
F F. The latter engages with the clutch G G, forming one with 
the loose slow-speed pulley H, when by J a tractive strain is exerted 
in the direction on the arrow of the lever K L oscillating around K. 
During running of the car, as long as the clutches are out of contact 
the toothed wheel B communicates its motion to the star pinions C, 
and these to the toothed wheel E and clutch F, but this motion 
does not give useful effect. When, on the contrary, the clutches are 
coupled and the slow-speed belt is on the loose pulley H, motion 
of the latter is transmitted by engaging the toothed wheel E with 















































464 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


the star pinions C, which turn loosely on their axles, and more or less 
drive the brake pulley. However, if at the same time the brake 
pulley is made motionless by pulling the rope in the direction of the 
arrow, and consequently the pinions C also, motion of the toothed 
wheel E is transmitted by them to the toothed wheel B, but in 
the opposite direction to motion of B. This wheel drives pulley A, 
and consequently the car, backwards. The two motions of coupling 
the clutches G G 1 and locking the brake are produced successively 
by the same lever. 

The electric ignition device employed on Mors cars is shown 
by Fig. 122 (p. 156), and part of it is represented on a larger scale 
by Fig. 451, in which S is the self-induction coil; F, wire connection 
from coil to the igniter I; m, plate of igniter; C, mica insulator; 
B, higher side of cylinder; a, pivot of palette; r, distance of 2 mm. 
(•078 in.) between the top of rod and palette; P P 1 , palette; P 1 , arm 
of lever enclosed in cylinder; P, exterior arm of lever; x, antagonistic 
spring of palette; h, igniting rod worked by cam. Usually the 
current which has passed through the self-induction coil S runs 
through the igniter I to lever P (because the plate m and lever 
are in contact), and thence by pivot a to the bulk of the motor, 
which is connected to the negative terminal of the battery or 
dynamo. When the ignition cam mounted on the distributing 
shaft (see Fig. 127, p. 158) rises, rod h and by it the end P of lever 
P P 1 , contact between the plate and arm P 1 is broken, and a rupture 
spark is produced which ignites the mixture. The spark is produced 
at the moment when the piston has yet 18 mm. (-7 in.) to travel to 
reach the dead point, the end of its compression stroke. The current 
remains open during a certain time (one-fifth the duration of a 
cycle), because the cam has a certain length; then it is shut, 
because the palette P P 1 is brought back by the spring x. Thus 
it passes for the four cylinders during four-fifths of the duration 
of the cycle or two revolutions of the motor. Whilst the motor 
is working the current has an intensity of 0*9 ampere at a pressure 
of 20 volts, whilst at rest the discharge is 7 amperes; consequently 
the current must be switched off when the motor is at rest. At 
starting the current is supplied by the accumulators, but soon 
after by a dynamo worked by friction of the fly wheel. This dynamo 
gives 2 amperes at 20 to 25 volts when the motor is at its 
regular speed, and surplus current is employed to recharge the 


PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


465 


accumulator cells, which are divided into two batteries. For the 



requisite connections Mors has invented an ingenious commutator 
which is placed in the middle of the steering bar, and always is 
E E 








































466 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


under the eyes of the driver. On the frame can be mounted 
various bodies, such as those of a dog-cart, coupe, or phaeton. This 
second type of car dates from 1896, and sometimes has metal wheels 
and sometimes wooden ones. The motor also controls the water 
pump and automatic lubricator of cylinders. 

The third type of Mors car has a motor with two vertical 
cylinders. The phaeton exhibited for the first time in 1898 had this 
type of motor. The 8 h.p. motor is carried in front, as in the Panliard 
car, and turns at a very reduced speed; the parts are very durable. 
Electric ignition, speed regulator, and moderator are provided, and 
there are four speeds and reverse motion. 

The fourth type has a 4 h.p. motor with two horizontal cylinders. 
The voiturette exhibited at the Tuileries in 1899 had such a motor. 
It has a governor, electric ignition, and is cooled by a current of 
water flowing through the radiator. Lubrication is assured by a 
multiple delivery apparatus which conveys the lubricant to each part, 
and consequently there is no oil in the gear case; the advantage of 
this is that the cylinders do not fill with liquid and the valves are not 
fouled. The transmission is by toothed gears, and there are three 
speeds and reverse motion. 

The modern type of Mors car is shown in general view by Fig. 452, 
the underframe and mechanism being illustrated in elevation and 
plan by Figs. 453 and 454 respectively. In these two latter figures, A is 
the four-cylinder 10 h.p. motor, mounted towards the front of the channel 
iron underframe, F, which is supported by the axles through single¬ 
plate springs. Power is transmitted through a cone clutch, B, to a 
shaft, C, which passes into the gear box, D, and carries the sliding- 
sleeve and pinions of the change-speed gear. The upper longitudinal 
shaft in the gear-box carries the fixed change gear spur wheels and 
drives the differential cross shaft, E, by bevel gearing. The final drive 
to the road wheels is by chains. G is the float-feed carburetter. The 
motor cylinders have air-cooled bodies and water-cooled heads, the 
circulation being maintained by a centrifugal pump, and the water 
cooled in the radiator, H. On the front end of the half-speed shaft is 
a governor controlling the motor by means of the throttle valves at J 
in the suction valve chambers, all the throttle valves being operated 
from one vertical spindle, Iv. The four exhausts are led by indepen¬ 
dent pipes to the silencer, L. Current for the low-tension ignition 
apparatus is supplied by an accumulator at starting and by a magneto 


PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


467 


machine, M, when the motor is running'. Lever N controls the 
change-speed gear; it actuates the striker in the gear-box through 
the rod 0. Lever P operates the reverse motion gear by shifting the 
reversing bevels by means of the link, Q, and the thrust block, R, 
Lever S actuates the driving wheel band brakes, T. Pedals U and Y 




operate respectively the clutch and brake, W, on the differential shaft. 
The motor is started by winch handle, X. The steering wheels are 
pivoted, on the Ackermann system, at the ends of the fixed front axle, 
and are controlled by the hand wheel, Y, which actuates the connect¬ 
ing link, Z, through a worm and sector. Petrol spirit and water 
are carried in the two tanks shown. 

E E 2 

























































































































































































































































468 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


In the Landry-Beyroux petrol car, the motor (p. 159) 

with one vertical cylinder is placed at B (Figs. 455 and 456), at 
back of frame A, which can be adopted by various types of bodies. 
The motor shaft B 1 is fixed longitudinally in the centre of the car, and 



it has a big fly wheel K with a rim similar to fly wheels of ordinary 
fixed motors. By the side of the fly wheel is the solid part of a coup¬ 
ling I, and the chief shaft carries after the coupling three pinions, each 
giving a distinct speed when they are made to engage with three 
toothed wheels keyed on a secondary shaft parallel with the main 
shaft. This secondary shaft gears with the differential shaft D by 





























































































































































































PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


469 


means ot pinions i, j, or h, giving forward or reverse motion. The 
differential shaft controls the driving wheels D by pinion F and end¬ 
less chains. Steering is operated by bar n, pinion rack, and connect¬ 
ing rods. 

The Landry-Beyroux coupling is illustrated by Fig. 457, whilst the 
mechanism actuating the coupling and brake is shown by Fig. 458. 
In Fig. 457, B 1 is the motor shaft; J, hollow cylinder keyed on B 1 ; 



Fig. 459. —Gautier-Wehrl:e Petrol Car. 


L L, half-discs made of wood connected by springs M and thrown into 
gear when they are wedged inside the cylinder J by driving wedge N 
between them; this wedge forms one with sleeve Q and key R; the 
latter can glide along the shaft P, when lever U (Fig. 458) is worked, con¬ 
trolled by pedal S; V is a spring maintaining pedal S in the position 
for throwing into gear. For engaging, this pedal is pushed in the direc¬ 
tion of the arrow until its end, S 11 , catches in the notch on the spring 
X. To throw out of gear lever T is pushed in the same direction, the 
stud Y pressing on spring X, and releasing end S 11 . The pedal S, under 
the action of spring V, returns to its original position and drives the 
wedge. Pedal T has a projection at b connected to the shoe brake in 


















































































































































470 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


such a manner that by continuing to act on pedal T, after having 
thrown the motor out of gear, the brake shoes are applied to the 
wheel tyres by aid of rope g of the drum h and lever /. Moreover, the 
brake can be locked by screw e, its hand wheel being turned for the 
purpose. 

Gautier- Wehrle cars are manufactured by the Societe Continen- 
tale d’Automobiles. The motor has two opposite horizontal cylinders 
(see p. ICO), and is placed transversely between the two axles on the 
frame (see Fig. 459). The coupling (see p. 264) and hinged axle (see 
p. 280) are special constructions by the firm. Wooden wheels are used. 
In another type the motor is placed in front of the vehicle, where 
it is easier to inspect, thus increasing the length of the main 
shaft. 

Fig. 459 shows the Gautier-Wehrle car frame : M M 1 , motor cylin¬ 
ders ; NN 1 , igniting apparatus; A, gear case containing oil; B, fly wheel; 
C, coupling ; E, box of the speed-changing gear worked by lever I; the 
wheels of this gear are keyed on shaft A (Fig. 247, p. 280), which by a 
pinion communicates motion to the differential of the hinged axle, 
which drives the car wheels ; F, pedal for throwing the motor out of 
gear; when this has been done, pedal G can be made to lock the 
collar brake L, mounted on the speed-changing shaft. Immobilisation 
of this shaft enables the speed to be changed without noise or break¬ 
ing the gear teeth ; J, lever controlling the compressor brakes G G n 
mounted on driving wheels. 

The first cars constructed by the Compagnie Generale des Auto¬ 
mobiles had a Benz motor, belt transmission, curved frame of delicate 
and expensive structure, with double suspension. The latest cars 
have a motor with two parallel cylinders employing electric ignition; 
this has a variable lead, and the cylinder is cooled by a current of water 
from a pump; lubrication is automatic. The motor is of 4 h.p. to 6 li.p., 
and the weight for the latter power is 120 kg. (264 lb.). This motor 
could work in a vertical position, but it is placed horizontally under 
the frame, a little to the fore and above the rear driving axle. Power 
is transmitted from the chief shaft to the secondary shaft, carrying 
the speed-changing gear by a belt which is gradually stretched. An 
ingenious system for changing speed, invented by G. Valentin, 
director of the workshops of the company mentioned, is based upon 
employment of differential wheels, making it possible to pass without 
jolt to the maximum speed, it also giving reverse motion. The car is 


PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES 


471 


stopped by slackening the belt, and the same operation decreases the 
speed of the motor and locks the coiled brakes on the naves of the 



driving wheels. If the car is to remain still, the electric ignition is 
suppressed. The motor is started again from the driver’s seat by a 
fly wheel, chain and pinion controlling a pawl coupling mounted on 










472 


TEE AUTOMOBILE. 


the crank shaft of the motor, the coupling being disengaged auto¬ 
matically alter producing its effect. The frame is straight and very 
rigidly constructed by aid of angle irons and U-irons. Any kind of 
body can be carried by aid of springs giving a double suspension. 

Lepape cars are of several types; one is a hauling vehicle driven 
by a three-cylinder motor (p. 160) placed behind the fore driving axle, 
the plate transmission gives sufficient power for a speed of 18 km. 
(11 1 miles) per hour, but not more. This hauling vehicle or locomotor 
was soon abandoned, perhaps owing to the fact that hauled vehicles are 
not tolerated in Paris. Then followed a voiturette weighing, ready for 
the road but without passengers, 300 kg. (660 lb.); it was driven by a one- 
cylinder motor (p. 16.1) placed horizontally above the driving fore axle. 
Theie is plate transmission with pinions, and wheels with journals to 
drive the motor wheels (see Figs. 275 and 276, p. 299), this arrange¬ 
ment occupying much space. Finally, in 1898, Lepape exhibited at 
the . Tuileries the car represented by Fig. 460; this has an 8 h.p. 
vertical motor placed in front of the frame above the steering axle in 
a box with movable glass shutters, through which all the parts can 
be reached. The electric ignition comprises a battery and a coil for 
each cylinder, so that the car can run with only one cylinder at 
work. Motion is transmitted to the rear wheels by a special 
mechanism (Fig. 277, p. 299). The four speeds range from 6 km. to 
28 km. (3-7 miles and 17 4 miles) per hour. The interchangeable 
body is mounted on the frame by means of Cee or nipper springs, this 
double suspension giving it great smoothness in running. Through 
the floor rims a steering bar, forming one with the frame, upon 
which all the working parts are fixed. The driver regulates carbu¬ 
reting and ignition from his seat. The car has two brakes, one shoe 
and the other plate, the latter acting on a rim fixed to the driving 
wheels ; the multiple lubricator is of the Hamelle type. 

The David cars have a P. Gautier motor (p. 162) with four vertical 
cylinders conveniently placed in a box in front. Transmission is by 
gearing always m contact, and there are three speeds and reverse 
motion. Any type of body can be bolted to the metal frame. For 
two and tour seats the motor has a power of 6 h.p., and for six to 

eight seats 8 h.p.; consumption is 0'5 1. (-88 pt.) of petrol spirit per 
horse-power per hour. r 

The Yallee petrol car has a motor (see p. 163) with two hori¬ 
zontal cylinders placed above the rear wheel driving axle. The 


PE TROL ATJ TO MO BILE VEHIG LES. 


473 


cranks are keyed at 180°, and power is transmitted to the differential 
shaft by bolts giving three speeds, 7 km, 15 km, and 25 km. (4*3 
miles, 9 3 miles, and 15*5 miles) per hour. In a recent car, one belt 
constitutes all the transmitting device. It directly communicates the 
motion of the motor shaft to a drum on the rear axle, containing the 
differential reversing gear and brake with interior plate. This single 
belt can be very wide, and can be given great tension by means of a 
device for moving the rear axle away from the fore; thus there is 
sufficient adhesion always to prevent skidding. Vallee placed a motor 
with four horizontal cylinders under the frame near the fore axle, and 
adopted an electric igniter and a mechanical speed regulator. 

In 1 enting s first cars the motor had two horizontal cylinders 
placed above the rear axle and perpendicular to it (see p. 164). Power 
was transmitted by plates (see p. 300) and the same lever caused 
engaging and forward and reverse motion without jolt at any rate of 
speed. Steering was by aid of fore-carriage and pivot. In the second 
type of Tenting car the motor had two cylinders inclined one above 
the other symmetrically with regard to a horizontal plane and 
parallel to the median plane of the car above the rear driving axle. 
Motion of the plate was transmitted to the differential by a system of 
toothed wheels, which seem more complicated than the endless chains. 
For steering there was a divided axle. More recently Tenting con¬ 
structed an omnibus with a 16 h.p. motor having four inclined 
cylinders above the fore axle, the motor driving two cranks keyed at 
180 from each other. Transmission is always by friction, but two 
pairs of toothed wheels give two speeds. This omnibus, which weighs 
6 tons, can carry eighteen passengers at a speed of 18 km. (Ill miles) 
per hour. 

The Leo car has a Pygmee motor (see p. 164) with two horizontal 
cylinders placed below the rear driving axle. There is toothed trans¬ 
mission gear and a belt with spring coupling stretcher worked by a 
train ; a pedal causes coupling, and in the position of disengaging can 
be fixed by means of a bolt. This belt controls a loose pulley on the 
differential shaft; this shaft carries the speed-changing and reversing 
gear, and is placed in a closed box with a secondary shaft carrying 
other wheels ; it governs the driving wheels by endless chains. 

Gaillardet’s first attempt was a voiturette with three wheels; it 
had a 5 h.p. motor and weighed 250 kg. (550 lb.) empty, but this was 
abandoned. The Societe Fran^aise cTAutomobiles employs an 8 to 10 



4 / 4 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


h.p. Gaillardet motor (p. 164) for its cars; motion is transmitted by a 
toothed system with ball-and-socket shafts; a second differential (see 
p. 287) gives reverse motion. The tubular frame supporting the motor 

and the body is suspended 
above the axles by two 
longitudinal nipper springs 
in the rear and three half- 
nipper springs in the front. 
A drum, forming one with 
the nave of the driving 
wheels, has a rope brake on 
the outside and a plate 
compressor on the inside, 
locking both during for¬ 
ward and reverse motion. - 
The type of Gaillardet 
car now being made at 
Suresnes is illustrated in 
elevation by Fig. 461 and 
in plan by Fig. 462. These 
cars are built in two sizes, 
being fitted either with a 
single-cylinder 6 h.p. motor 
or with a two-cylinder 12 
h.p. motor, but the designs 
are the same practically 
The larger car (Figs. 461 
and 462) weighs 850 kg. 
(16-7 cwt.), and the smaller 
one about 700 kg. (13-8 
cwt.). The driving mech¬ 
anism is carried on the 
same framework as the 

body, which is suspended 
upon the front and rear axles by semi-elliptical springs. The motor 

does not resemble the air-cooled type illustrated by Figs. 168 and 169 
p. 186 ; it is water-cooled and has long bearings projecting inside 
the driving pulleys. It is fixed vertically in front and has a wide 
pulley, e, Fig. 462, from which a belt transmits power to either 
































































































PE TROL ATJ TO MOBILE YE IIIC LES. 


475 


of the three, equal pulleys, / g, h, Fig. 462 ; these pulleys are 
so mounted on the counter-shaft that they can be caused to rock 
around it while still remaining in gear with it. The usual outside 
chains connect the ends of the counter-shaft with the rear driving 
wheels. The motor has 
both electric and tube 
ignition, plugs for the 
former being placed in 
the cylinder head, c , 

Fig. 462, and the tube 
for the latter being 
fitted between the inlet 
and exhaust valves d, 

Fig. 462. A hit-and- 
miss governor acts upon 
the exhaust valves in 
the usual manner, and 
an accelerator allows 
the speed to vary from 
600 to 1,600 revolutions 
per minute. Fusible 
plugs in the motor pre¬ 
vent the temperature 
rising above a certain 
point. In the smaller 
motor, interior fly¬ 
wheels counterbalance 
the weight of the piston 
and connecting rod, and 
in the larger motor the 
cranks are opposite each 
other and counter¬ 
weights are formed on 
each of the outer crank 
cheeks. The carburetter is of the constant level type, resembling 
Longuemare’s. In Fig. 461, a is the reversing lever; b, counter¬ 
shaft brake lever; c, belt striking pedal; d, side brake pedal; 
/, hand lever for the striking gear; g, starting handle connected 
to the motor shaft by a chain; h and i, usual regulating lever for 






























































































































































































476 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


the ignition and the governor; and j, petrol tank behind the dash. 
In Fig. 462, a is the starting handle; b, the carburetter; i, the circu¬ 
lating pump; k, the combined hand and foot striking gear; n, the 



reversing connecting links; and o, the belt tightening rod 
401 a radiator is shown at the back of the car, and in Fb-. < 
shown m front. The 12 h.p. car is 31 in. (10 ft. 2 in.) Ions? 
lasis TO m. (6 It. 3 in.), and its road wheels are SO cm. (2 ft.' 


In Fig. 
162 one is 
its wheel 
i o in.) m 












































































































































PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES . 


477 



The Henroid petrol car has its motor of 4, 6, 7, 8, or 10 li.p. (p. 165) 
placed crossways in front of the car under the body, in a very conveni¬ 
ent position (see Fig. 463). The longitudinal motor shaft has a coupling 
and pinions gearing on the one hand with bevel wheels of different 
diameters for changes of speed, and on the other with the only wheel 


diameter, with pneumatic tyres 9 cm. (3'5 in.) in diameter ^ these 
respective dimensions in the 6 h.p. car are 3 m., 1*8,75 cm., and 65 cm. 
(9 ft. 10 in., 5 ft. 11 in., 2 ft. 5*5 in., and 2 ft. 1*6 in.), and in both large 
and small car the underframe is 62‘5 cm. (24*6 in.) from the ground. 

Figs. 464 and 465. —Elevation and 
Plan of Brouhot Petrol Car. 


Fig. 464. 
































































































































478 


THE AUTOMOBILE, 



for backward motion. The rear wheels are mounted on the differential 
shaft,, which drives them by aid of chains. The frame is formed of 
two side bars of U-iron, united by four forged iron cross-pieces. 

The Le Brun car has a Daimler type motor with special car- 
buietter; the motor has two inclined cylinders, and the valves are in 


Fig. 466. 


Fig. 467. 


Fig. 46S. 



Fig-s. 466 to 468 .—Details of Brouhot Pawl Device. 

Petrol Car. 


Fig. 469.—Gobrox-Brillie 


a COnV f iel f P° sition : tuition is by tubes, the burners for 
piich rue placed so as to make extinction almost impossible The 

driver can constantly regulate the amount of air added to the car 

buretted mixture. The frame is arranged to carry an interchangeable 
case. ° 


The Brouhot car has a motor of from 4 to 12 h.p. (see p. 168). 
lansmission is by toothed gear, and there is no differential, the pawl 


























P E Til OL A UTOMOBILE VERIOLES. 


479 


and ratchet (see pp. 275 and 480) being employed instead. A special 
device assures free motion of axles. 

An elevation ot the underframe, transmission mechanism, and 



I> Figs. 470 and 471. —Elevation and Plan of 
Gobron-Brillie Petrol Car. 



steering gear of a Brouhot petrol car is shown by Fig. 464, and a plan 
by Fig. 465, from which it will be noticed that the transmission is quite 
chainless. A is the motor, B the case containing the speed-changing 









































































































































































480 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


gear, operated by lever C. Pedals D and E respectively operate the 
clutch and brake, F is the centrifugal governor, G the carburetter, and I 
is a pinion on the crank-shaft against the friction clutch J, meshing 
with a bronze toothed wheel H; the shaft of H passes through the 
change-speed gear box, and carries pinions gearing with toothed 
wheels on a second shaft ending with the pinion K. This last drives 
wheel L, which is mounted on the rear wheel axle. No differential 
gear is employed, this being replaced by a pawl device, illustrated by 
Figs. 466 to 468, in which a is the axle, b a ring toothed internally 
and keyed to the rear wheel, and d a pawl with three arms. One 
arm of the pawl engages in a slot cut into the axletree, and one of the 
other arms lies in one of the spaces between the teeth of the 
internally toothed ring. When travelling backwards the third arm 
of the pawl engages in the toothed ring, instead of the second one 
above mentioned.. Thus the same effect as with an ordinary 
differential is obtained, whilst the rear axle can be made solid in 
one piece (see also p. 275). Returning to Figs. 464 and 465, 0 is the 
exhaust escapement box, N is the brake lever, P and P 1 cord brakes 
acting directly on drums secured to the wheels, and M is the radiator 
The Gobron and Brillie car (Fig. 469) has a motor with two vertical 
cylinders, as illustrated by Figs. 140 and 141 (p. 169). The frame is 
made of steel tubes firmly intertied, and it rests on the axles by nipper 
springs. It carries on indiarubber pads an interchangeable body which 
can be removed by simply loosening four bolts. The toothed trans¬ 
mission is carried in an aluminium gear case, and it gives three or four 
speeds according to the type of car. With the variations of speed dven 
b} the motor the car can be run at any speed from 3 km. to 25 lan. or 
40 km. (1 86 miles, 15 5 miles, 24’8 miles) per hour. The car is 
steered by the epicycloidal system (see p. 325). Elevation and plan 

of the under frame and mechanism of the modern car are riven bv 
bigs. 470 and 471 respectively. 

. , The Tioser-Mazurier omnibus which took part in the heavy vehicle 
trials of 1898, during which it was disabled by an accident ascribed to the 
bad arrangement of its steering parts, has a 9'5 h.p. compound motor 
similar to that described on p. 182. It can carry fourteen passengers 
twelve inside and two on the front seat, with their luggtge on the 
loof. The body is supported by a wooden frame resting by nipper 
springs on the axles in front and in the rear on longitudinal spring 
formed of a single blade. The motor is fixed between the steerim 




PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


481 



fore wheels. A friction coupling and two special sets of toothed 
gearing give five 
speeds—namely, 

2 km., 4 km., 5 
km., 12 km , and 
21 km. (1-2, 2-4 
31, 7'4, and 13 
miles) per hour, 
and reverse 
motion at the 
lowest rate of 
speed. The 
motion of the 
motor is trans¬ 
mitted to a 
toothed wheel 
which an end¬ 
less chain in the axis of the car 
connects with the differential 
wheel on the axle. Steering is 
operated by aid of a hand wheel 
working a toothed sector which 
ofoverns the transmission rods. 

All these rods have universal a 
joints and give a very smooth 
steerage, which enables the car 
to be turned in a circle having 
a radius of about T5 m. (59 in.). 

The great number of joints in 
the parts which make the 
wheels interdependent does not 
permit of absolute reliance on 
the harmony of their move¬ 
ments. The front wheels are 
1 m. (393 in.) in diameter and 
the rear ones 1*2 m. (47 - 2 in.), 
and the width of the tyres is 70 
mm. (2‘75 in.). .Ready for the road with driver, with 100 kg. (220 lb.) 
of water and 40 kg. (88 lb.) of petrol spirit, the car weighs 2,610 kg. 
































482 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


(5,742 lb.) and can carry a useful load of 980 kg. (2,150 lb.). Its total 
length is 5'2 m. (13 It. 9'3 in.); width outside the naves 1-89 m. (5 ft. 
10 8 in.). According to the constructors the consumption of petrol 



spirit (density 720) is 0166 1. (-29 pt.) on a level per km. at a speed 
of 20 km. (12-4 miles) per hour. Consumption of petrol spirit per 
horse-power hour is 03 kg. (10 5 oz.). With its supply of 55 1 (121 
gall.) it could travel about 300 km. (186 miles) without new supplies 























































































PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


483 


Lefebvre s Bolide car is driven [by a twin cylinder horizontal 
motor, 15 cm. (5*9 in.) in bore with a piston stroke of the same, the 
connecting rods being keyed at 180 from each other. The heads of 



these connecting rods are lubricated by a channel made in the elbows 
of the crank. The carburetter is atomising, and the driver can modify 
the regulation during the journey by aid of a micrometric screw. For 
the exhaust two large copper pipes open out at the back of the car. 

F f 2 






































































































































































































































































484 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


Electric ignition is given by a single coil by aid of two cams keyed at 
a right angle on the secondary shaft; these in coming into impact 
with a spring contact close the primary circuit, and at this instant a 
cam closes the secondary current on one or other of the sparking 
plugs. A micrometric screw within reach of the driver makes it 
possible to turn all a little around its centre to change the lead of 
ignition according to the rate at which the motor runs, this varying 
from 150 to 1,000 revolutions. At 700 revolutions it gives 15 h.p.; 
its weight is 242 kg. (532’4 lb.). The cylinder jacket water is cooled 
by means of a radiator directly branched on the motor without pump, 
and this is said to be effective with a tank of only 23 1. (5 gall.) 
capacity. The motor is in front of the car, the sparking plugs facing 
the load, the radiator being before the apron. The motor flv wheel 
carries a belt running to two pulleys of 50 cm. (19’68 in.) diameter, 
one being keyed and the other being loose on the differential shaft; 
the shifting of the belt from one pulley to the other causes engaging 
and disengaging. When the disengaging pedal is pressed down as 
far. as it will, go, a shore is applied against the fixed pulley to 
facilitate meshing of the teeth. By a special device three speeds are 
given by toothed wheels carried by two sockets loose on fixed axles. 
The frame made with angle irons suspended by springs on the axles 
receives an interchangeable body. The great wheel base of 2 m. 
(6 ft. 6-7 in.) gives great stability. Ready for the road, without 
passengers, the car weighs 1,050. kg. (2,310 lb.). The car is steered by 
a handle bar or fly wheel, vertical bar, pinion and rack, controlling 
the steering axle by aid of connecting rods united by universal joints; 
see Fig. 472, which is a general view of the mechanism of the Bolide 
car ; in this figure A shows the cylinder ; R, radiator ; S, disengaging and 
brake lever; M, speed-changing and reversing lever; V, pedal operat¬ 
ing brake on. differential; C, belt; H, exhaust pipe; P, driven pulley : 
B, box containing accumulators and coil; J, rack steering pinion. 

The.Raouval car is built by the Societe Anonyme de Mecanique 
Industrielle d’Anzin, and it is shown by Figs. 473 and 474 rlpufik 
being illustrated by Figs. 475, 476, and 477. The Pygmee Vertical 
motor has two cylinders of 110 mm. by 150 mm. (4'3 in by 5 9 i n ) 
and develops from 6 to 8 h.p. at from 650 to 800 revolutions per 
minute. Its shaft has a clutch coupling composed of a fly wheel 
forming the hollow part of the friction cone, and a loose plate on 
the shaft constituting the solid part. For speed-changing this plate 


PE TR OL ATJ TO MO BILE VEHIC LES. 


485 


is connected by means of a hinged clutch coupling to the shaft L, 
the speed-changing apparatus being enclosed in a cast-iron gear 
case M fixed to two cross-pieces of the frame; shaft L has three 
toothed wheels, which can gear with three others placed on an 
intermediary shaft above, which transmits a forward or backward 
motion to the transversal differential shaft by aid of a bevel pinion 
keyed to its end, and gearing at will with one or the other of the two 



Fig. 475. —Section of Eaouval Gear Case. Figs. 476 and 477. —Kaouval 

Steering Gear. 


pinions of the reversing coupling contained in the differential gear. 
Inside the gear case mentioned, and keyed on the intermediary shaft, 
is a locking ratchet to prevent all motion opposite to what is 
required; this is shown by Fig. 475, which is a section of the gear 
case, in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the car; this also shows 
that the inner shaft only entrains the annular shaft when the 
interposed balls are locked by its motion from right to left against 
the inclined planes. When this shaft turns in the opposite direction 
the balls follow without exerting any action on the exterior shaft. 
The frame, composed of U-iron 75 mm. by 35 mm. (2'9 in. by 

































486 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


1 '3 in.) braced laterally by gussets and crosswise by five U -iron 
bars, rests by four springs on two axles ; the front axle has journals 
ot 38 mm. (1 *49 in.) divided for steering, and the rear axle has 
journals of 43 mm. (169 in.). The wheels are 1 m. (3937 in.) in 
diameter in the rear and 80 cm. (31 49 in.) in front. The steering 
gear, completely mounted on a cast-iron support fixed to two cross¬ 
pieces of the frame, has an inclined pillar k (Figs. 476 and 477), pro¬ 
viding the driver with hand steering wheel m in a convenient position. 
The hand wheel transmits by pinion i and parabolic sector h pro- 
giessi\e angular displacements to a second shaft g, at whose end 
is a crank /, the pin of which is connected by a rod e to crank c, 
keyed on the wheel pivots. The object of this ingenious device is 
to enable, by gradation, rapid turnings, though necessitating great 
angular movements to maintain straight steering. Fig. 476 is an 
elevation of the steering gear, whilst Fig. 477 shows two details of 
it, namely, the eccentric pinion and parabolic sector. Keturning 
to Figs. 473 and 474, the former being an elevation and the latter 
a plan, A is the motor; B, suction box; C, plugs for inspecting valves ; 
D, carburetter; E, suction pipe for carburetted mixture; F, cold air 
valve, G, hot air valve; H, exhaust box; I, exhaust pipes; J, 
c utch coupling; K, automatic brake for speed-changing; L, con¬ 
trolling shaft; M, speed-changing reversing and differential box; N, 
differential shaft; 0, chain stretcher; P, crank for reversing; Q, brake 
pulleys on naves; B, pivot for working nave brake; S, controlling 
shaft; T, fixed fastening of the nave brake; U, pedal keyed on the 
axle, and acting directly on the nave brake; V, crank working 
>rake of differential; W, loose pedal acting directly on the differential 
brake; X, shoe-brake lever; Y, eccentric transmitting motion; Z 
shoe lever ; a, reversing lever ;• b , speed-changing lever; c, ’car¬ 
buretter regulating rod; d, steering fly wheel; e, water tank; 
v ^ vatei ln l e G* g, air and steam exhaust; A, water suction pipe* 

P" m P ; /’ P ulle y drivin fe r pump ; lc, water forcing device ; l, constant 
level tank; m, pipe from tank to cylinder jackets; n, pipe for 

exhaust steam; o, radiator ; p , pipe for return of condensed water • 
q, overflow pipe; r, petrol spirit tank for burners ; s, burners. 

. , rhe Du< = rol »et oars on the Berret system are driven by a motor 
with two cylinders, giving an explosion per revolution, the connecting 
rods being keyed, on the same crank. These cylinders, formed by 
two steel tubes with sheet iron cooling jacket, are remarkably light. 


PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLE8. 


487 


Electric ignition with variable lead is obtained by means of an ac¬ 
cumulator, coil, and two tremblers worked by cams having a helicoidal 
groove, mounted on the distributing shaft. The motor speed may 
vary from 150 to 600 revolutions per minute. Transmission is 
assured by belts, the driven edges of which are stretched by aid of 
aluminium rollers, each controlled by a lever retained during motion 
at the proper notch by a rack F (Figs. 478 and 479). These levers 



are disengaged automatically by pressing on the pedal o, which by 
aid of the cranked lever g of rod t of shaft _p and cam q runs plate E 
transversally under rack F. This plate unhooks the lever, which 
returns to its position for disengaging. A rod fixed to the same pedal 
o governs the differential brake formed of a steel hoop with a camel- 
hair belt inside. When it has disengaged, and it continues to be pressed 
upon, the brake is locked. The body is fixed to the frame by aid of 
six fixed screws, and consequently can be interchanged very easily. 

The Leon Bollee car is built by Darracq, and its motor has a 
horizontal cylinder fed by an atomising carburetter, ignition being by 
incandescent tubes; in spite of its relatively great power, 5 li.p., it 
is not water-cooled, but merely has flanges, and is carried in front 

































































488 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


of the car, so as to lie in direct contact with the air, which is driven 
dovn upon it by the blunted corner which terminates the body. The 
burner and valves also are conveniently in front.' The action of the 
centrifugal force regulator can be stopped by an accelerator. Motion 
is transmitted to the wheels by a belt, two cones with five stepped 
pulleys, and a train of gear wheels which connect the intermediary 
shaft to the rear axle, which is furnished with differential The 
motor shaft across the car ends in a fly wheel on the side outside 
the frame, the hand crank for starting the motor being fitted to the 
centre of this fly wheel. The first cone is mounted on the motor 
shaft, but does not form one with it, so that, except for forward 
motion,, it is not entrained by a catch which leaves it free to be 
driven m the opposite direction when motion of the motor shaft is 
transmitted to it only by intermediary gearing. The second cone is 
keyed on its shaft, or, at least, on the tubular part which forms one of 
the halves of this shaft, and also carries the solid part of the coupling. 
The reason for having a coupling in this transmission is that the belt', 
running very quickly, adheres very strongly, and does not give at the 
time of engaging the requisite gradation. The hollow cone is 
mounted on the second half of the intermediary shaft, which is solid, 
and carries the pinion controlling the differential wheel. Usually the 
hollow cone is pressed by a spring on the solid cone, and causes 
engagement To disengage, the spring must be prevented from 
acting, and the hollow cone must be moved away from the solid one 
I he belt connecting the two sets of pulleys runs at a very great 
mear speed, because it is directly driven by the pulleys mounted 
on the motor shaft, which revolves at about 800 revolutions per 
minute The greater the speed of the belt, the more it adheres to 
the pu leys and the better it transmits power from one to the other 
10 make skidding impossible, when necessary the belt tension can be 
mei eased by aid of a stretcher, and apparently the belt can undergo 
an elongation of 8 cm. (315 in.) without need of shortening To 
make the belt pass from one step of the pulley to the other, which 
has rounded edges, there runs along the cones an S-sliaped piece 
furnished at each end with a sheet V, which nips an edge of the belt’ 
ns tiansversal motion is given by a rack, which the driver cause's 
to slide on itself by rotating a vertical shaft in front of the seat its 
motion being transmitted by pinions and a chain , to the pinion 
gearing with the rack. The flat differential (see p. 274) connects the 


PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


489 



two P ai ts of the axle upon which the naves of the metal wheels are 
mounted with ball bearings and the drum of a plate compressor. A 
second plate compressor is placed on the hollow cone of the coupling. 
Steering is assured by a fly wheel mounted at the top part of a 
vertical rod, whose base carries a pinion gearing with a horizontal 
lack cut m the rod which governs the bell crank lever; the connect¬ 
ing lods are mounted on ball-and-socket joints. The following are 
the w 01 king parts : (1) steering hand wheel fixed on a solid rod in front 
of the driver; (2) speed-changing wheel with balls, placed im- 


Fig. 480. —Darracq Petrol Car. 

mediately below the preceding, at the end of a tube which works the 
steering rod; the wheel causing the tube to rotate by raising it, so 
as to fix it in one of the notches; (3) handle for reversing and 
setting the intermediary gearing, for reversing in motion b}^ rotation 
of its rod; (4) belt stretcher; (5) disengaging pedal; (6) pedals 
for disengaging and brake on coupling; (7) brake lever on the 
naves ; this brake can be fixed by aid of a sector at the required 
point, and it locks both in forward and reverse motion of the car; 
(8) accelerator. The three-seat car weighs 500 kg. (1,100 lb.) empty, 
and runs with an average speed of 30 km. (18*6 miles) per hour, 
and even 45 km. (27*9 miles) can be reached. The Darracq 
modern petrol car is shown by Fig. 480. 

The German Daimler car, manufactured by the Daimler Motoren 
Gesellschaft, of Cannstadt, Wiirtemberg, has its motor enclosed in a 

























































490 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


case at the rear, instead of being at the front as in English and French 
cars. In the car exhibited by the company at the Tuileries in 1898, 
the motor was of 4 h.p., and had reversing gear and four speeds, 
the greatest being 24 km. (14*9 miles) per hour. The car was steered 
by aid of a hand wheel working a pinion, and a toothed sector with a 
pivoted fore-carriage, upon which the car rested through a trans¬ 
versal spring. This fore-carriage was connected to the rear shaft by 
a longitudinal rod having at the front end a collar, in which the 
pivot turned. Daimler employs a somewhat original transmission. 
The motor is at the back, and its shaft has two driving fly wheels on 
each side, each of which receives a belt, usually floating, which unites 
them to another on the driving shaft. The differential shaft carries 
pinions which gear with toothed wheels, forming one with the driving 
wheels, and owing to large spiral springs at the rear, the pinions can 
turn around the axle without moving away from the toothed wheels. 

Canello-Durkopp cars are built in Germany and Austria by the 
Lieleferder Maschinen Fabrik vormals Diirkopp and in France by the 
•Societe Anonyme des Automobiles Canello-Durkopp. The 4, 6, or 
8 h.p. motor {see p. 174) is placed in front as in the Panhard cars, and 
water-cooled by a thermo-siphon when the power is small, and for 
motors of great power by a pump worked by the fly wheel or by 
gearing keyed on the regulator shaft, a radiator then being placed 
under the body. Reversing and the various speeds, 15 km., 22 km., and 
85 km. (9-3 miles, 13 6 miles, and 217 miles) per hour, are obtained 
b) gearing always engaged; for reversing there is a supplementary 
pinion, and disengaging is operated by working the pedal or brake 
le\eis so as to obtain a traction strain on the transmission shaft 
which the engaging gear connects with that of the motor. The 
pivoted steering wheels are controlled by a loose bar (or pillar and 
hand wheel), but with an intervening endless screw which prevents it 
from swerving when one wheel strikes an obstacle on the road. For 
this, the bar governs a sector gearing with a pinion forming one with 
the screw, and along this screw a nut ascends and descends, entraining 
a lever which another connects to the cross-piece of the wheel con¬ 
necting rods.. The second lever has at its ends pivoted chapes which 
nullify the jolts of the wheels caused by rough roads. When 
one of the wheels meets with an obstacle tending to send it sharply 
to one side or the other, this motion has no other effect than that of 
causing the pinion to rise and fall in the teeth of the sector without 


PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


491 


turning either the sector or the loose bar. Usually these cars have 

thiee biakes, a collar brake each on the differential shaft and drivin°’ 

& 



wheels and a shoe brake on the tyres. The first is controlled by a 
pedal and each of the other two by a crank. 



















492 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


The English Daimler car is much like the French car, but as a 
rule it is slightly heavier. In Fig. 481, which shows the car, 1 is the 
hand-steering wheel; 2 , speed-changing lever; 3, reversing lever; 
4, hand brake; 5, pedal for countershaft brake 6; 7, pedal for 
withdrawing clutch; 8, gear box; 9, countershaft; 10, exhaust 

silencer; 11, petrol spirit tank; 12, water tank with radiator beneath 



482. Humber 1 etrol Car “with Bonnet up. 

13, coupling rod to sprocket brakes; 14, accelerator; 15, pressure 
gauge, 16, lubricator sights; 17, lubricator reservoir; 18 starting 
pump; 19, pressure pipe to petrol spirit tank; 20, petrol spirit supply 
pipe; 21, vaporiser; 22, burner box; and 23, water-filling inlet. 

The Humber 5 li.p. petrol car with the bonnet up is shown by Fio- 
482. The underframe, of weldless steel tubing, braced by tie rods! 
supports a body that can be replaced easily with one of another design. 
The de Dion-Bouton motor in front is water-cooled, the radiator 







PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


493 


being placed in front of the bonnet, and the water being circulated 
by a centrifugal pump fitted with ball bearings. Bonnet and radiator 
are hinged for convenience in getting to the motor and other 



Elevation and Plan of Stirling Petrol Car 


/ r ^^ esea 





N 




parts. Ignition is electric, the batteries and coil being close to the 
motor. The de Dion-Bouton spray and float-feed carburetter is 
. employed. The Panhard transmission gear gives three forward 
speeds and one reverse, or two forward and two reverse; it is 









































































































































































494 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


operated bj a hand lever, a pedal changing from forward to 
backward motion. The system is quite chainless, there being a 
longitudinal shaft with universal joints. Steering is as usual. 
There are three brakes, one acting on the longitudinal shaft, and 
two band brakes acting on the rear wheels. The weight is given 
by the makers as 560 kg. (11 cwt.) as a mean, it, of course, varying 
with the seating capacity. 

The Stirling 7 h.p. car is interesting because of the attempt made 
in it to simplify the transmission mechanism and to use a high-power 
motor. The elevation Fig. 483 and the plan Fig. 484, though merely 
diagrammatic, show all the parts of the propelling mechanism with the 
exception of a reversing gear. A four-cylinder vertical motor, A, has 
its crank-shaft lying transversely across the centre of the framework. 
A fly-wheel, B, and a pair of friction clutches, C and D, are carried 
upon the crank-shaft between the motor and an outside bearing. The 
clutch drums C and F) are attached to a large and a small chain 
wheel respectively, and either of them can be made to render its 
chain wheel solid with the motor shaft when desired. The hand lever 
E is connected by the levers F and G to the clutches, so that the 
latter may be operated alternatively or both may run free. The 
counter-shaft H, carried in bearings upon the framework, has a differ¬ 
ential gear, K, in a drum, which carries a pair of chain wheels, N, in 
line with those on C and D. Tavo roller chains, L and M, alternatively 
transmit the poAver from the motor to the counter-shaft, and 
sprockets on the ends of this further transmit the poAA^er by chains 
to the rear road wheels. The steering gear includes a universally 
jointed pillar, 0, connecting the hand AAdieel P with a strong chain 
wheel, Q, on the front axle; the universal joint R allows the pillar to 
be used at any desired angle to suit the form of body. A larger chain 
Avheel, S, also is carried horizontally upon the front axle, and this is 
connected by a heavy chain, T, Ayith the sprocket Q. The rod U is 
rigid Avith the chain Avheel S, and is connected by the rod Y with the 
steering arm W; the rod X joins together the two arms W and Y, as 
usual in the Ackermann steering system. The car framework is of 
wood, lined with steel plates and angles, and two steel cross bars hold 
the motor, Avhich itself forms perhaps the chief feature of the car. Its 
four cylinders are made in one casting, and are mounted above the 
crank chamber on six steel pillars, much in the same Avay as in some 
smah marine steam engines. The four exhaust valves are placed 


PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


495 



facing and below four vertical inlet valves on the forward side of the 
cylinder, a cam-shait, passing across inside the crank chamber, 
operates the exhaust valves in the usual way. In Figs. 483 and 484 


Figs. 485 and 486.— Elevation and Plan of Wolseley Petrol Car. 


Fig. 485. 


Fig. 486. 


inlet valves a are shown to be opened positively, these being actuated 
by a cam-shaft mounted above the cylinders and driven by a chain 
passing from the lower cam-shaft; generally, however, the inlet valves 
are opened atmospherically. A third cam-shaft b operates make- 
and-break low-tension ignition plugs, which are bolted on the top of 












































































































































































































496 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


the cylinders, The shaft b is mounted so that it can be rocked 
relatively to the chain wheel driving it, and the time of ignition is 
variable over a wide range. To give 7 h.p. the speed is 700 revolu¬ 
tions per minute. The current for ignition is given by dry cells at 
starting, but when the motor is running, a dynamo driven by a belt 
from the fly-wheel supplies the necessary current, and a simple intensity 
coil serves for the ignition of all four cylinders. As regards brakes, a 
band brake is fitted around the drum, K, of the differential gear between 
the chain wheels, and two similar brakes act upon the rear wheels. 

The Wolseley car or voiturette, made in Birmingham, is shown dia- 
grammatically in side elevation by Fig. 485 and in plan by Fig. 486. A 
is the 4 h.p. horizontal motor, with gun-metal jacket; its crank-shaft 
bearings are at B, and fly-wheels at C. D is the exhaust pipe, and E the 
exhaust silencing chamber. Fixed to the motor shaft is the transmis¬ 
sion pulley wheel F, placed in line with a pulley wheel, G. The 
wheel G is attached to the driven shaft H of the change speed gear 
mechanism I J, and through it drives the counter-shaft K, this last 
being fitted with a differential gear inside the case J, and chain¬ 
driving the rear road wheels in the ordinary manner. The chief 
feature in the Panhard type transmission system is the mounting of 
the aluminium gear box freely upon the counter-shaft K, and it can 
be made to swing about this axis by means of a hand lever partly 
indicated at L. The result of the motion is that the belt, M, connect¬ 
ing the pulleys F and G, can be tightened or slackened at will by the 
driver. The belt thus gives the combined advantages of a flexible 
drive and a friction clutch, besides being capable of adjustment to 
compensate for stretching. The speed gear consists of three forward 
trains and one reverse train of spur wheels, arranged in the usual 
manner, to be thrown in or out by the lever N and the rod 0. The 
sliding spur wheels are mounted on the shaft H. The cylinder jacket 
water is cooled in the radiator pipes P, connected by the small tank 
or header Q. To this tank, to the petrol spirit tank R, and to the 
lubricating oil container, are fitted gauge glasses inside the dashboard. 
The ingenious steering gear secures rigidity of the steering wheels 
at the same time that it provides for sensitive steering. The hand 
wheel S is on the rod T, at whose lower end is a bevel wheel inside 
the casing U; with this gears another bevel wheel on the horizontal 
shaft Y, this shaft having universal joints, and carrying a worm that 
gears into a worm wheel inside the casing W. This worm wheel is 


PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


497 


fixed to the arms X, and these are attached to the steering rod Y by 
the pin Z. The casing W is secured by the front axle a. The object 
of this is to obtain a quick action of the wheel S upon the steering 
wheels, and to insert a non-reversible worm gearing in the actuating 
system, so that the road steering wheels cannot transmit motion to 
the hand wheel S. The motion of the rod T is geared up in the shaft 
Y, and then reduced again by the worm gear. The steering gear thus 
is self-locking. The frame of the voiturette is of channel iron in one 
piece, and the total weight of the vehicle is about 600 kg. (12 cwt.). 

The Napier petrol car shown in elevation by Fig. 487 has come to 



the fore during the last year or so. The channel iron underframe F is 
supported from the axles by single plate springs in front and double 
plate springs at the rear. The two-cylinder vertical motor E is in 
front, and by means of a cone friction clutch, C, drives the Panhard 
type change-speed gear enclosed in the box G. Four speeds are 
provided. Bevel gears transmit the power to the differential shaft H> 
and chains, K, connect this shaft with the rear wheels. The motor is 
of 9 h.p., or more, and is wholly water-cooled, a special form of cylinder 
lining doing away with the necessity of having a joint at the head. 
The cylinder bore is 10T6 cm. (4 in.), and the piston stroke 15‘24 (6 in.). 
The water from tank W is circulated by a pump friction-driven by the 
fly-wheel; the radiator R is below the water-tank. A float-feed car¬ 
buretter is employed, and current for the electric ignition is given by an 
accumulator. The throttle valve is controlled by a centrifugal governor 
mounted on the front end of the crank shaft and enclosed in the casing 
A. This car gave good results in the Glasgow Exhibition trials of 1901. 

GG 



































































498 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


The Mees car obtained at the Exhibition in Berlin a gold 
medal for excellence in design and construction. An elevation of 
the car is given by Fig. 488, a plan by Fig. 489, and a back view 





by Fig. 490. The Mees motor is illustrated by Fig. 138, p. 167. The 
bent wood car frame is braced with steel gussets and ties, and 
rests through elliptical plate springs on two axles, which are tied 




























































































































































































































































































V 


PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 499 

together further by two longitudinal steel tubes; the motor and 
intermediate gear are suspended from this framework, the encased 
motor being secured by two springs to the rear axle, as shown 
by M. The petrol tank, which is also the carburetter, is shown at 
E, and the cooling water tank at W. In the carburetter is a coil 
through which part of the exhaust gases are led, air being admitted 
through a small chimney. The motor shaft lies in the longitudinal 
axis of the car, and at its inner end carries a small bevel pinion 
which engages with two larger wheels on the intermediate shaft, 



shown in Fig. 489, and in enlarged detail by Fig. 491. This 
intermediate shaft carries a differential gear and a variable speed 
gear, and at each end, outside the car frame, a pitch chain pinion 
driving the rear wheels in the usual manner. Each driving wheel 
carries a brake drum, B, round which is a coil of steel wire rope, 
both brakes being tightened simultaneously by operating one brake 
lever. The principle of the power transmission and speed changing 
is that of the “ sun and planet ” gear. Letter references in Figs. 488 
to 490 remaining to be described are: T, motor fly-wheel; G, wheels, 
etc., on intermediate shaft; K, radiator. 

The Roots and Venables cars use petroleum (ordinary kerosene 
or paraffin) instead of petrol spirit, and it is claimed that this 
results in great economy, a car carrying two persons performing a 
of a little more than 64 km. (40 miles) on a consumption of 

GG 2 


run 






































































































































































500 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


4'54 1. (1 gal.) of oil. The chief feature of the car is the special 
device for heating the oil vaporiser. The 3fr h.p. car for two persons 
has a channel steel underframe, and the single cylinder motor employs 
tube ignition, the hot tube also serving to heat the vaporiser. 
Steering is by rod, and there are two brakes. An elevation of the 
7 indicated h.p. car is given by Fig. 492. This has wheel 
steering and three forward speeds and one reverse. The twin 
cylinder motor is under a bonnet, and in front of this is a radiator. 
An interesting point is that the motor cylinders work independently, 
with a friction clutch between them ; one cylinder is started by 



hand, the two coupled together, and the first one starts the second. 
Two band brakes act upon the rear wheels, and there is a further 
band brake on the counter-shaft. 

The Motor Manufacturing Company’s light car is shown by 
Fig. 493. Its low, tubular underframe carries near the front end 
a two-cylinder motor of either 6 or 7 h.p. The motor drives 
through a cone friction clutch the change-speed gear of the Panliard 
type, the differential shaft chain-driving the rear road wheels: the 
long chain drives from differential shaft to road wheels are a notice¬ 
able feature. The motor is water-cooled, a centrifugal pump main¬ 
taining the circulation, and the radiator is let into the front of the 
bonnet in the Panliard style as illustrated. There is a float feed 
carburetter, and ignition is either tube or electric. Steering is as 
usual, and the advance sparking and throttle control levers are 
mounted on the steering pillar, separate levers controlling the forward 












































































PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


501 


and reverse speeds. The band brakes acting on the rear driving 
wheels are operated by a hand lever, and two pedals control respect¬ 
ively the clutch and the clutch and differential shaft band brake. 



The miniature Panhard car of the Motor Manufacturing Company 
is shown in elevation by Fig. 494, and in plan by Fig. 495. The 
de Dion-Bouton type motor is from 5 to 54 h.p., and its 
single cylinder is water cooled, a pump friction-driven from the 














502 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


fly-wheel circulating the water. The radiator is at the front of the 
car below the level of the frame, and the 23 1. (5 gal.) (water tank 



is carried below the footboard at the back. A special device regulates 
the degree to which the inlet valve opens. The 5 h.p. °motor 
has a cylinder of 100 mm. (3‘9 in.) bore, and 110 mm. (4-3 in.) 













































































































PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


503 


piston stroke, the speed being 1,450 revolutions per minute. Accu¬ 
mulators and induction coil provide current for ignition. A neat 



bonnet covers the motor, which drives a change-speed gear through 
a cone friction clutch, the gear wheels inside a casing remaining 
continually in mesh, and being alternately brought into action by 








































































































































































































































































































































































504 


the automobile. 


;i feather sliding on the shaft; three forward and one reverse speed 
thus are obtained. The differential shaft is driven hy fixed bevel 
gear, and drives the road wheels through chains. Differently shaped 
1 >odies may be fixed, but usually the body seats four passengers, and 
in some forms the rear seat is detachable to make space for luggage. 

The Vincke and Roch-Brault car is of Belgian construction, very 
ike the Panhard, and it is built at Malines. Its Ideal motor (see p. 165) 
of 8 h.p. has two vertical cylinders and is carried in front. The last 
transmission shaft has a transversal pinion gearing with one or the 
other of two longitudinal pinions for forward and reversing motion. 
Between the two pinions is a differential which makes it possible to 
draw back the two parts of the shaft on which it is mounted. By 
t is arrangement, if the shaft gets bent by accident it can be removed 
very rapidly and the differential left in place. The car has four 
speeds ranging from 10 km. to 45 km. (6*2 miles to 279 miles). The 
motor and mechanism are mounted on a small underframe placed 
30 cm. (11-8 m.) below the large one; thus the centre of gravity is 
ow and gives greater stability. The smaller frame is hooked upon 
the large, which itself is supported by the axles on two nipper springs 
m front and two half-nipper springs at the rear; any body can be 
adapted to the underframe. The car is steered by an inclined fly¬ 
wheel as in the Panhard, but a rack is used. " J 

Din-yea cars are American and varied in type, some having a motor 
with tank and horizontal cylinder, and others a direct internal com¬ 
bustion cylinder placed above and in front of the rear driving axle 
he Ouryea car that won the Chicago race (see p. 559) had a tank motor, 
le relt transmission giving three speeds and reversing. These three 
speeds are controlled by a cord which turns a pullev'on whose shaft 
our cams act on the belt stretchers according to the position of the 
shaft. The intermediary shaft driven by these belts has a pinion gear- 
mg with a toothed wheel, which surrounds the differential. For steer- 

leHivT 18 a f' V - ided axl \ and the w heel journals are inclined to the 
’ 80 as t0 mtersect the ground at the point where the wheels 
come into contact with it ; this facilitates steering, preventing sharn 
swerves which might be caused by an obstacle. The frame°is sus 
pended above the axles by two longitudinal springs at the rear and 
a transversal spring in front. The latter spring is united to the frame 
by a hinge with horizontal axis, which allows the axle to incline on 
uneven ground without canting the car. The weight of this car is 


PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


505 


320 kg. (704 lb.), and the one-cylinder 4 h.p. motor weighs as little as 
54 kg. (118-8 lb.). The car has run 90 km. (56 miles) in nine hours, 
with a consumption not exceeding 16T (28-16 pts.) of petrol spirit, 
in spite of a thick layer of snow on the roads, and it can run 32 km. 
(19*9 miles) per hour on good roads. A more recent type employs the 
system of toothed transmission shown by Fig-. 496. The transversal 
crank shaft controls, by bevel pinions giving forward or reverse 
motion, a longitudinal shaft K, which by three pairs of toothed 
wheels for changing speed, l l 2 , m m 3 , n n 2 , drives shaft L. The latter, 
by pinion M, governs wheel G mounted on the driving axle 13. All 



these wheels are engaged continually with each other, but the pinions 
l, m, n are loose on shaft K, and are only successively made solid 
with it by aid of couplings l l , m 1 , n l , seen near the naves. These 
couplings are made to act at the right moment bv the bell cranks 
visible below when rod R, moving longitudinally, acts by its bosses x 
and 0 on the rollers which terminate these squares. Coupling O 1 
on the left of pinion 0 serves this pinion. When, by gliding on the 
socket of wheel l, it makes this pinion interdependent with the wheel, 
the latter turns, moving shaft L and the driving axle in the reversing 
direction. This device is expensive to make, and the wheels when 
disengaged turn with the others and wear away quickly, and the 
Krebs device {see p. 445) is to be preferred to it. The tubular frame 
rests on the rear axle by two brackets, and on the front one by a 
transversal bolt which allows this axle to be displaced in a vertical 
plane. The body rests on the frame by two transversal springs, and 
the steering system is the same as in the first type. 








































506 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


The Columbia petrol car (Fig. 497) is manufactured by the 
Electric Vehicle Company, of Hartford (Conn.), U.S.A., and its total 
weight ready for the road is given at 744 kg. (1,640 lb.). The motor 
has only one cylinder, and this measures 117 mm. (4'6 in.) diameter by 
173 mm. (6‘8 in.) stroke. The complete motor, with 48 cm. (19 in.) 
fly-wheel, weighs 109 kg. (240 lb.) and gives 5 brake h.p. at 
750 revolutions per minute; it is mounted upon a separate spring- 
supported frame in front of the car. Power is transmitted from the 
fly-wheel through a pedal-operated friction clutch from which a shaft 



Fig. 497. —Columbia Petbol Cab. 


runs longitudinally, this shaft carrying four gears, three for forward 
speeds and one for reverse. The counter-shaft to which they gear 
continues to the rear line axle and drives it by means of large bevel 
wheels. The entire gearing is encased in one cast-steel box which 
includes the rear axle and ensures alignment. When 4 h.p. is 

. ^ loss in transmission to tlie rear axle 
is only 6 per cent. The gear ratios are respectively 152 to I, 7 8 to 1, 
4 to 1, and foi leveise 18 9 to 1. and these gears are thrown in by 
opposite clutches operated by one lever. By means of a simple inter¬ 
lock the gear can be changed without first disengaging the friction- 
clutch on the motor fly-wheel. The motor speed is controlled by a 
governor which operates a valve in the suction pipe, in which, beyond 
the governor throttle, is the aspirating carburetter, so arranged that as 
the throttle opens more petrol spirit is aspirated, and as it partially 








PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


507 


closes the quantity is decreased; this device ensures the correct 
quantity of carburetted mixture at any speed. A foot pedal operates 
an accelerator fitted on the motor; the high tension ignition is 
advanced or retarded automatically by the motor according to its 
speed. In the early part of 1901 this car made an 800 km. (500 miles) 
continuous run, under severe climatic and road conditions, and then 
5*1 km. were obtained per 1 1. of petrol (14'4 miles per 1 gal.), the 
total weight of car, passengers, and baggage being 1,670 kg. (3,680 lb.), 
the best average speed being 37 km. (23 miles) over a road that was a 
succession of grades. 

The Bird cars (of Buffalo) and the Mercury cars (of Chicago) may 
be noted. In the first the motor is of no particular type; there is 
plate and roller transmission, and the steering is by a fore-carriage 
with a very narrow pivot. In the second the 4 h.p. balanced 
motor has electric ignition; and there are three speeds, 4'8 km. to 
32 km. (3 miles to 20 miles) per hour, and reverse motion. The 
wooden wheels have pneumatic tyres and ball bearings. 

The petrol car has been adapted to commercial purposes, that is, 
the delivery of goods in town and country. Petrol delivery vans 
differ from touring cars practically only in the shape of the body, the 
frame and mechanism being altered but little. 

The Panliard delivery car run at the heavy vehicle com¬ 
petition of 1898 had a closed body and an 8 h.p. motor, and it 
differed little from the omnibus which ran in the trials of 1897 as 
regards mechanism, except in having an automatic lubricator; this 
device made it possible to dispense with many nozzles. 

The Peugeot firm has built delivery cars for some large com¬ 
mercial firms in Paris and the provinces; also it builds a lurry 
capable of carrying a useful load of 1 ton. The frame is tubular, 
as in light cars, and the wheels are metal. 

The de Dietrich lurry is represented .by Figs. 498 to 500 ; it is built 
to carry 1,200 kg. (2,640 lb.) of merchandise, and can carry even 
1,500 kg. (3,300 lb.) over a good dry macadam road. It has four 
speeds, 4 km., 7 km., 12 km., and 16 km. (2*48, 4*3, 7-4, and 9*9 miles), 
and reversing gear. The ratio of the useful load to the dead weight 
is 0-923, and of the latter to the total weight, 0*480. The wooden 
wheels with metal naves have an exterior diameter of 78 cm. (30 7 in.); 
the steel tyres on the front wheels are 60 mm. (2*36 in.) Avide, and on 
the back wheels 75 mm. (2-95 in.); the distance between wheels is 


508 


THE A UTOMOBILE. 


1 2 m. (3 ft. 11-2 in.); width, all projections included, is T48 m. (4 ft. 
10-2 in.); total length is 3*28 m. (10 ft. 9 in.). According to the 
builders, the consumption is 025 1. (’44 pt.) of petrol spirit (density, 
0700 to 0710) per km. (-62 ndle), and 1 1. (176 pts.) of water. The 
supplies carried suffice for a journey of 130 km. (81 miles). This lurry 
took part in the Versailles 1897 heavy vehicle trials. 



Figs. 49S and 499. —Elevation and Plan 01 
de Dietrich Petrol Lurry. 


Pig. 498 . 


The Milnes lurry was the only representative of internal com¬ 
bustion motor vehicles at the War Office heavy vehicle trials carried 

T TJ u u T ’ 1901 ’ and th@ elevation > Fig- 501, and the plan, 
ig. 50~, show the actual lurry that took part in those trials. The propel- 

mg mechanism is suspended from the channel steel underframe the 

motor E being mounted towards the front of the frame, and its power 

bemg transmitted from its crank shaft through a friction clutch C to 

the first motion shaft of the change-speed gear enclosed in case G. 






































































































































































































PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


509 


The second motion shaft of the change-speed gear is connected by 
jointed rod D to a short shaft carrying a bevel pinion which gears 
with a bevel wheel mounted on the sleeve of the differential gear H 
on the divided cross shaft J. Keyed spur pinions at the end of the 
cross shaft gear with internally toothed rings on the rear road wheels. 
The cross shaft and the short shaft carrying the bevel pinion are 
mounted in bearings attached to two longitudinal wooden radius 
bars, shown in Fig. 501, which are connected by cylindrical bearings 
on the rear axle and pivoted at their front ends from the longitudinal 
members of the frame; these 
bars preserve the necessary 
radial distance for the shaft D 
and for the spur wheels K. The 
motor E has four vertical 
cylinders whose bodies and heads 
are cast together in pairs, so that 
there are no external water joints. 

The mechanically operated ad¬ 
mission and exhaust valves are 
in separate pockets on opposite 
sides of the combustion cham¬ 
bers, and the low tension electric 
ignition is of the Simms-Bosch 
rotary type. So that either 
petroleum or petrol spirit may 
be used, there are two float feed 

carburetters, one being fed by gravity from the petrol spirit tank 
behind the driver’s seat, and the other by exhaust pressure from the 
pretroleum tank L, suspended below the underframe at the back; the 
induction tube is exhaust jacketed for a considerable length, so as to 
vaporise the heavy oil. The motor is started with spirit and main¬ 
tained with oil, and to govern it the supply of carburetted mixture 
can be throttled ; X Y show the governor. The exhaust from all four 
cylinders is taken by a single pipe to the silencer S. For cooling the 
cylinder jacket water, a combined tank and radiator, W, of the air 
tube and fan type, is attached to the underframe in front. The metal 
cone friction clutch is controlled by the pedal P. The change-speed 
gear, of the sliding spur wheel type, is arranged on the Cannstatt 
system, the spur pinions of the four forward speeds being mounted in 



Fig. 500. —Rear Elevation of de Dietrich 
Petrol Lurry. 




























































































Figs. 501 and 502.— Elevation and Plan of Milnes Petroleum Lu 

































































































































































































































































































































































































































PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


511 


pairs and controlled by a hand lever U. To obtain a reverse speed, 
lever F throws in a third pinion between two of the forward gears 
when these are not engaged. A section of the change-speed gear is 



g. 503. — 
M I L N E k S 
Chang e^- 
speed Gear. 


Fig. 5 0 4.— 

M I L N E S 
Tran s mis¬ 
sion Gear. 






'7| 

\ 


shown by Fig. 503, whilst Fig. 504 is a plan and section of the com¬ 
bined bevel and differential gear. The steering is arranged on the 
Ackermann system, and is controlled by the hand wheel T, there 
being the usual worm and sector gear. There is a pedal-operated 














































































































































































































































512 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


double-acting brake on the counter-shaft (second motion shaft), and 
block brakes M, applied through worm gearing from the hand wheel V, 
act on the tyres of the rear wheels. Details of the counter-shaft brake 
are illustrated by Fig. 505. In the War Office trials above referred to 
this vehicle was not so successful as some of the steam vehicles, but an 
efficient heavy lurry may with confidence be expected as the outcome 
of this very promising experiment. It has been remarked that the 
motor approaches as near perfection as any heavy oil motor yet 
employed upon a self-propelled vehicle. 



The alcohol-driven lurry of the Societe Nanceene was awarded 
a gold medal in the French alcohol trials held during the latter 
pait of 1901. Fig. 506 is a sectional elevation, and Fig. 507 a front 
view of the vehicle. The main frame is of channel steel lined with wood, 
am it supports the Uobron-Brillie two-cylinder motor (p. 169) through 
a pair of bent girders strongly braced in front. There are three 
mechanical changes of speed and one reverse, but the ignition is 

eas ®’ and lntei mediate speeds are possible. The 32 ko- 
J° lb I> %- wlle e! transmits power by means of a cone friction clutch to 
the change-speed gear wheels, whose secondary shaft, by means of 
gear wheels, drives the differential upon whose periphery works a 
double-acting brake. A spring pawl adapted to the hand wheel 
winch actuates the shoe brakes prevents slipping of the snrocket 
upon which the chain operating the shoes /wound it spring 
gear is of peculiar design, as illustrated in Fig. 506. The total 
































































































PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


513 


weight of the lurry is 25 tons, and its load is from 3 to 5 tons. Its 
consumption of alcohol when carrying a load of 3 37 tons at a speed 
of 9*1 km. (14h miles) per hour over bad roads, works out at -0963 1. 
per car ton-kilometre, or 1678 1. per ton-kilometre load (-2728 pt. per 
car ton-mile, or -4748 pt. per ton-mile load). 

The Cambier lurry has the 30 h.p. motor mentioned on p. 156. 
The Cambier omnibus can carry a load of 3 tons. For such power, 
however, steam is preferable. The Compagnie Anglo-Fran 9 aise builds 
many Benz delivery cars. 



Fig. 507. —Rear Elevation* of Nanceexe Alcohol Lurry. Fig. 508. —Elevation of 

Amiot-Peneau Motor Fore-carriage. 


The Daimler lurry exhibited in 1898 at the Tuileries had a 10 h.p. 
Phoenix motor and weighed 3 tons empty and 5 tons loaded; it could 
carry two useful tons on a rising gradient of 12 in 100 at a speed of 
4 km. to 12 km. (248 miles to 74 miles). The transversal differential 
shaft had pinions gearing with the toothed wheels of the driving 
wheels, and the frame was supported in front by spiral springs and in 
the rear by springs with longitudinal plates. Several of these lurries 
have been constructed. 

The Motor Manufacturing Company’s delivery van merely is 
the standard 6 h.p. underframe and mechanism of that firm 
with a van body mounted on it. The Daimler motor has two 
cylinders, and the transmission gear is of the usual Panhard type, 
the chain drives being of low gear. At the Glasgow Exhibition 
trials of 1901 a van of this kind ran very well, its performance 
being as good as that of an ordinary touring car of the same make. 

H H 






















































































514 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


Other heavy petrol vehicles worthy of mention are the Daniel 
Best tractor; that of Clarke’s Crank and Forge Company (Lincoln), 
built on the de Dion-Bouton system; and, finally, the Lawson- 
Pennington tractor. 

Motor fore-carriages easy to couple to any kind of car would have 
many advantages ; for instance, ordinary cars could be employed and 
yet remain suitable for horses; the cars would be hauled and not 
pushed: motor and body easily could be kept separated, and conse¬ 
quently there would be no vibrations. Enthusiasts add that trans- 



Fig. 509. Plan of Amiot-P£neau Motor Fore-carriage. 


mission would be simplified, all the weight of the motor would be 
utilised lor adherence, on falling gradients and slippery, wet ground 
the weight of the fore-carnage would prevent the rear-carriage from 
roc mg, and that, lastly, when stopping suddenly, the front wheels 
could lie locked and the car prevented from swinging round 

The Pretot fore-carriage, the first of the type, was on view at the 
Salon du Cycle et de l’Automobile of 1896. All the mechanism 
motor and transmission, was enclosed in a box suspended by springs 
above the axle and was bathed in oil. The box had a rolling path 
similar to that of the lore-carriage, which was detached from the car 
coupling being accomplished by the ordinary pivot. Changes of 
speed were obtained by a device described on p. 291, unfortunately of 


































































































PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 515 

delicate structure and difficult to lubricate. Forward and backward 
motion were given by a single lever, as were also the rate of speed, the 
locking of the brake on the differential, and stoppage. It was 
ingenious, but did not give good work, partly because, to relieve the 
pivot, the fore springs were subjected to traction strains. 

The Amiot-Peneau fore-carriage has a modified Daniel Auge 
motor (p. 164) placed in C (Figs. 508 and 509), supported by springs 
I which rest on axle A. The letter C represents besides the petrol 



motor U, the fly-wheel V, the case for speed-changing gear 0, and the 
differential Q of Fig. 509. The wheels of the fore-carriage must be 
both driving and steering, and for this purpose the driving shaft con¬ 
trols, by the flexible shafts P P, the shafts H, at the end of which are 
pinions I, which engage with the toothed wheels E, forming one with 
the naves of the driving wheels. The chapes F of these wheels 
support the plummer blocks G of the shafts H, so that all D E F G H I 
turns around a common pivot, being continually driven through the 
flexible shaft P by the motor. Usually the motor is enclosed in a 
case, the tanks in the rear carrying petrol spirit and cooling water. 
This fore-carriage is coupled to the rear axle by a stout iron rod; 
whilst in front the body rests on sliding blocks. The substitution of 
H H 2 











































































































































516 


THE A UTOMOBII.E. 


the Amiot fore-carriage tor an ordinary one only needs tightening of 
several bolts to fix the floor of the seat to the two sliding blocks and 
the coupling rod to the rear axle; this floor is perforated with two 
holes, through which pass the controlling rod and brake pedal. It is 
intended mainly tor drawing heavy vehicles (omnibuses, lurries, street- 
sweepeis, watering-carts, etc.), and it has been tested satisfactorily. 

The Ponsard-Ansolini fore-carriage (Figs. 510 to 513) has a 4) 
h.p. motor M on the Roser-Mazurier system (p. 182), and its toothed 
transmission gear rests on a frame formed of two angle irons EE 1 



supported by the annular crown B, which itself rests on the differential 
shaft A ; thus motor and mechanism are not suspended. Crown B 
supports, by means of balls, the crown C of equal diameter, which in 
turn supports the front weight of the car by longitudinal and 
transversal springs F F. At intervals stirrups connect the two 
crowns. The crown C is fixed, but B can turn with all the lower 
part of the fore-carriage to give steering facilities ; this rotation is 
around the pivot L, fixed to frame EE'by the curved pieces K K. 

lis pivot, which is a hollow cylinder, through which pass the 
various transmission parts, can glide (to follow vertical rockino- of the 
car) and turn freely m socket S, under the action of lever (Opinions 
P and 0, and toothed sector N bolted upon it. Socket S transmits 
the motor tractile strain to the body of the car. For this purpose it 
is attached by two branches to a frame constituted, first by the four 
longitudinal angle irons U, bolted in twos on side bars of the car 






































































































PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


517 


body, and prolonged in front to support the cooling apparatus R 
(composed of a water tank and a warm pipe), and secondly by trans¬ 
versal angle irons V, which act as supports for the transversal springs 
F and the vertical shaft which controls the steering. The durability 
of all these parts and the larger diameter of the pivot assure the 
reliable transmission of the strain, but then, as it is subsequently 



continued by the body, the Amoit system is to be preferred, as it 
relieves the body. The Ansolini fore-carriage was exhibited at the 
Tuileries in 1898, coupled to a cab belonging to the Compagnie 
Generale des Voitures. The power given is 2 h.p., and the con¬ 
sumption is 0%5 1. (‘88 pt.) of petrol spirit per effective horse-power 
per hour. 

The Dore fore-carriage can be driven by a petrol or electric motor. 
Fig. 285, p. 305, represents it as arranged for electric driving; but it 
is almost exactly the same when petrol spirit is the motive power. 


















































































518 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


In the latter case the 4 J li.p. motor is of the J. Bouche type {see p. 168), 
and is placed longitudinally in the axis of the car between two side- 
bars, and occupies an area of 70 cm. x 80 cm. (27‘56 in. x 31*49 in.). 
On the transversal crank shaft is a Bonnafous clutch {see p. 262), 
on the exterior of which is a toothed wheel gearing with the wheel of 
a first intermediary shaft. This transmits motion to a second inter¬ 
mediary shaft by gearing with it directly for forward motion, and by 
means of pinion for reverse motion. This second intermediary shaft 
carries the speed-changing pinions enclosed in a case with the 
corresponding wheels. Finally the shaft of these wheels drives the 
fore-carriage pivot by a bevel wheel. The hand steering wheel is 
keyed on a tube perforated with a groove, through which runs a 
solid shaft furnished with a key running in a groove. By pushing 
the hand wheel against the car the motor is thrown into gear, and by 
turning it to right or left the car is steered. By pulling the wheel 
towards him the driver puts motor out of gear. 

The lliancey fore-carriage (Fig. 514) hauls a rear-carriage. The 
motor is placed before the only axle of the fore-carriage, and its shaft 
drives by a bevel gearing a transversal shaft, carrying the speed¬ 
changing and leversing gear, and by them the differential shaft upon 
which the wheels are keyed. The heads of the connecting rods and 
the gearing dip into oil contained by the water-tight gear case, under 
which aie the petiol spirit tank and the silencer. The accumulators 
and ignition coil are behind the fore-carriage. This last is coupled 
to the rear-carriage by means of a socket, around which it turns for 
steering, and in which it can ascend and descend to constantly keep 
the four wheels in contact with the ground. There are two brakes. 

Some other systems, which in some cases are only suggestions, 
may be noted. The Lockert fore-carriage has belt and friction plate 
transmission which can be replaced by toothed gear. The Emile 
Salles fore-carriage has its motor driving a flexible shaft, which com¬ 
municates motion to the wheels mounted to turn in chapes. The 
Ringelmann fore-carriage has a steering wheel in front, united to the 
supporting springs by a triangular frame, which carries the motor 
whose movement is transmitted by chains to toothed wheels keyed on 
the axle. This fifth wheel is found in the Johnson fore-carriage, 
which, like the petrol-electric cars described in Chapter XX., has a 
two-cylmder petrol motor, a generating dynamo, an electric motor 
and a battery of accumulators, the last-named storing the current 


PETROL AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


519 


when the electric motor does not consume all. The generating 

o O 

dynamo is run by the petrol motor, and the electric motor and a 
belt communicate motion to the driving wheels by gearing inter¬ 
mediary shafts and chains. Also, the fifth wheel is found in certain 



mechanical couplings, which are not considered to be more recom- 
mendable than the two preceding systems. Finally, the Heilmann 
four-wheel bogie is a regular tractor which can haul any car coupled 
to it after removing the fore-carriage. For some months the inventor, 
Heilmann, employed it to haul a landau, and he has attempted to 
modify the bulk, weight, and inartistic appearance of the fore¬ 
carriage, and to substitute a petrol motor with magnetic coupling for 
speed-changing for the electric motor previously employed. 























































































































CHAPTER. XIX. 


ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


The plan or general arrangement of an electric car is understood 
easily. It comprises (1) accumulator cells divided into several 
batteries usually enclosed by cases, but sometimes grouped in a frame 
under the car frame; (2) a motor, sometimes keyed on a shaft con¬ 
centric with the differential shaft carrying the wheels, but more 
generally it is on a shaft which drives the differential shaft by gearing, 
this gearing working, by endless chains, the loose wheels on the axle; 
very rarely mechanical speed-changing devices are employed; (3) a 
combiner or coupler to distribute current and make couplings suitable 
to the momentary requirements in driving the car. Also there are : 
a rheostat with graduated resistances; amperemeter mounted in 
tension on the circuit; a voltmeter placed on a shunt, sometimes an 
energy recorder which shows the amount contained in the accumu¬ 
lators at any moment; two fusible cut-outs placed on the wires 
running from the accumulators at a point before their passage into 
the mechanism; and there is an interrupter, a kind of key which the 
driver takes away when he leaves the car. 


The first electrically driven road vehicles appeared in 1881, when 
Raffard drove a tricycle with an electric motor of 7 kgm. (50-63 
ft.-lb.) power, fed by twelve Faure small accumulator cells • the 
vehicle weighed only 80 kg. (176 lb.). An omnibus owned by the 
Compagme Generate des Omnibus of Paris he transformed for running 
on rails and ordinary roads. Pouchain’s six-seat phaeton (1893) had 
four aluminium boxes lined with celluloid, each containing thirteen 
Dujardin accumulator cells having a total weight of 500 kg. 0,100 lb ) 
about one-third of the weight of the entire car, which was driven by a 
Rechmewski motor. Bogard’s two-seat dogcart, weighing when 
loaded, 2,300 kg. (5,060 lb.), was fitted much the same In 1896 
lAarracq exhibited at the Paris Salon du Cycle a very interesting coupe 
I he electric cars which took part in the Paris cab trials of June 
1898, had Fulmen accumulators, type B, with the elements mentioned 


ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


521 


in table below, and their wheels, except the rear ones of two Krieger 
cars with solid indiarubber tyres, had Michelin pneumatic tyres. 


FULMEN ACCUMULATORS, TYPE B. 


Number 
of Plates. 

Length in 
cm. 

Width in 
cm. 

Height in 
cm. 

Total Weight 
in kg. 

Capacity in 
Ampere-hours. 
(Discharged 
in 5 hours.) 

Total Energy 
in Watt-liours. 
(Discharged 
in 5 hours.) 

9 

8 

11 

30 

5'3 

70 

133 

11 

9-5 

11 

30 

6‘5 

85 

160 

13 

11 

11 

30 

7-7 

105 

200 

17 

14-5 

11 

30 

10 

140 

266 

21 

18 

11 

30 

12-4 

175 

333 


The wheel naves were bronze, except those of the Jeantaud cars, which 
were steel; the bearings were smooth, except those of the Jeantaud 
coupe, which were ball; the latter vehicle had steel spokes, but all the 
rest had wooden ones. The wheel base was 1*7 m. (5 ft. 6'9 in.) for 
the Krieger cars and T9 to 2 m. (0 ft. 2'8 in. to 6 ft. 6‘7 in.) for the 
Jenatzy coupe. The cars noted in the following table took part in 
the 1898 trials. 




Krieger 

Fore- 

C. by T. A. 
Rear 


Jeantaud. 


Particulars. 

steering ivioroi 
carriage. 

Driving 

Wheels. 

Fh . 

_ O OJ 

— tc 
c 

Rear Driving Wheels. 

Coupe. 

> 

'<k 

m 

> 

Cab. 

Coupe. 

Coupe vv 
Steering M 
Fore-carri 

Landaulet 

Cab. 

Drojki. 

Number of seats 

4 

l 

4 

2 

3 

2 

2 

2 

Load on front wheels, in kg. ... 

810 

850 

876 

810 

920 

770 

610 

400 

Load on rear wheels, in kg. 

496 

470 

510 

866 

690 

760 

670 

540 

Weight empty with driver, in kg. 

1360 

1310 

1370 

1662 

1590 

1520 

1270 

950 

Useful load, in kg. 

280 

280 

400 

140 

210 

140 

140 

140 

Weight loaded, in kg. ... 

1640 

1590 

1770 

1800 

1800 

1660 

1410 

1090 

Number of accumulators 

44 

44 

44 

44 

50 

44 

44 

44 

Number of plates, type B 

17 

17 

17 

21 

17 

17 

15 

13 

Weight of complete element, | 

10-4 

10-4 

10-4 

12-8 

10-4 

10-4 

9-2 

8 

in kg. \ 




352 

Weight of accumulators, in kg. 

458 

458 

458 

563 

520 

458 

405 

Percentage of accumulator ) 

27-9 

28-8 

25-8 

31-3 

28-9 

27-6 

28-7 

32 3 

weight to total weight loaded ) 


Power of motor in watts 

3000 

3000 

3000 

■ 

3500 

4500 

3000 

2000 


Jeantaud cars belong to two distinct types, a laudau with rear 
motor axle and coupe with steering motor fore-carriage. The drojki, 
a pleasure carriage with a single seat in front, was of a very similar 
type to the first. In Jeantaud carriages having rear driving axles 








































COUPLER FOR JEANTAUD CARS WITH REAR DRIVING AXLES. 


522 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 



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the accumulators (two groups of 
twenty-two cells with fifteen plates) 
are carried in the front and rear 
boxes, but in the cab they are placed 
in a box on the fore-axle, thus equili¬ 
brating the driver’s weight. 

The motor has its secondary coil 
on a drum, and the primary, with 
two poles, has a double winding, one 
series and the other shunt. It trans¬ 
mits power, by toothed wheel, to an 
intermediary shaft which carries the 
differential and by endless chains 
drives the rear wheel. The accompany¬ 
ing table and the one at the top of p. 523 
give the different work of the coupler. 

Independently of the coupler, the 
car is controlled by (1) a horizontal 
hand steering wheel, acting on the 
wheels of the fore-steering axle, (2) 
by a lever for the rope brake, which 
breaks the circuit and acts on the 
rear wheels in both directions, (3) by 
a pedal controlling the starting 
rheostat, and (4) by a crank work¬ 
ing a band brake which rubs against 



tyres, only employed exceptionally. 

The arrangement of the vehicle 
with steering motor fore-carriage is 
illustrated by Figs. 283 and 284, p. 304, 
the mechanism being explained on 
p. 306. There are fifty B 17 elements ; 
motors have double winding and 
vaiious couplings to obtain four speeds 
and stoppage, as explained in follow- 
ing table. Rear motion is obtained at 
all speeds by a special reverser. 

Ivrieger general cars are more 
complicated than the Jeantaud cars. 































ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


523 


COUPLER FOR JEANTAUD CARS WITH STEERING MOTOR 

FORE-CARRIAGE. 


Positions of 
Coupler. 

Working. 

Batteries. 

Field Magnets 
Series. 

Field Mag¬ 
nets Shunt. 

Armature. 

0 

Stoppage 

( Series and ) 

( insulated \ 

Open 

Open 

In short circuit 

1 

Slow speed 

Parallel 

In circuit 

In circuit 

In circuit 

2 

Average speed 

— 

In short circuit 

— 

— 

o 

0 

Accelerated speed 

Series 

In circuit 

— 

— 

4 

Full speed 

— 

In short circuit 

" 



The coupe, the vis-a-vis, and the corridor cab differ only in the 
body. The frame, supported by wooden wheels and made of wood 
and steel itself, is straight, and can, by aid of springs, carry any kind 
of spring. It also has two boxes, one in front and the other in the 
rear, each of which contains a battery, inspected and changed easily 
without fastening or unfastening anything. The following table gives 
some particulars of the coupler positions, etc., on a Krieger car:—• 


COUPLER FOR KRIEGER CARS. 


Positions of Coupler. 

Two 

Batteries. 

Excitations. 

Two Armatures. 

1 

ReA T erse motion 

Multiple 

Shunt and series 

Series and reversed 

00 

Working brake without recuperation 

Shunt 

Short circuit 

0 

Stoppage 

Starting 

Series 

Open 

Open 

1 

Shunted 

Shunt and series 

Series connection 

2 

Second speed 

— 

Series 

— 

3 

Third speed 

Series 

Shunt and series 

— 

4 

Fourth speed 

— 

Series 

Multiple 

5 

Fifth speed 

— 

Shunt and series 

6 

Sixth speed 

__ 

Series 

_ * 


Twenty-two elements B ir , always coupled in series, compose each of 
these batteries, and feed two four-pole motors, having four excita¬ 
tion coils, two with thick wire in series, and two with thin wire in 
multiple circuit, the drum secondary coil performing 2,000 to 2,600 
revolutions per minute. Each is mounted on a pivot of the fore¬ 
axle, which is both driving and steering, and communicates motion, 
by a spiral pinion, to a toothed wheel mounted on a corresponding- 
wheel. The ratio of these gearings is 1 to 17 or even 18, probably 
the greatest ever employed, and it may be asked whether it is not 
a cause of excessive strain and rapid wear for the pinion. There arc 

























524 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


six feeds, as stated in the table on p. 523. The driver has at command, 
besides the coupler, a hand steering wheel (replaced in later cars by a 
steeling bar with Vertical handles), a plate compressor acting on the 
leai wheels and controlled by a pedal, and a recuperator button also 
voiked with toot. Ivrieger’s new coupler is of reduced dimensions, 

and is provided with two new positions; the two electric motors are 
horizontal and suspended. 

Hie Jenatzy car, of the Compagnie Internationale des Trans¬ 
ports Automobiles, is represented by Fig. 515. The forty-four 



Fig. 515. —Jenatzy Electric Coupe. 


elements B a fire in two boxes front and rear of the body. There 
is a series motor with two poles and a drum secondary coil 

driving the differential shaft which, by chains and pinions, moves 

the rear wheel. The speed can be varied (1) by parallel connec- 
tions of the two batteries (for slow speed), or series connections 
01 11 s ? ecd >’ (1>) ’-'.I - inserting variable resistances in the circuit 

T by P la ° m 8 a P alr of t°°thed wheels in the transmission, reducing 
the speeds given by the preceding devices in the ratio of 100 

to 67. Combination of these three means gives a varied scale of 
speeds, io simplify the coupler, it is not employed either for 

recuperation or for the brake. A handle serves to place the motor 
in le circuit. and insert the resistances; moved in the opposite 
direction, it gives reverse motion at the same rate of speed as 















































ELE G TRIG A UTOM0B1LE VE 111 GLES. 


525 


forward. The car is very simple. The driver has before him the 
coupler; on the left the mechanical speed-changing lever; on the 
right the steering lever; and at his feet the pedal of the plate com¬ 
pressor mounted on the differential shaft. The shoes can be locked 
on the rear pneumatic tyres by means of a hand crank. Hospitalier 
remarks that this handle ought also to switch off the current, so that 
the car cannot be set in motion as long as the brakes are locked. 

The cars just described are the only electric cars which took 
part in the cab trials of 1898. The automobiles which took part- 
in the trials of 1899, or figured at the Tuileries exhibition in 1898 or 
1899, will now be mentioned. A Jenatzy cab and delivery car have 



Fig. 516.— Compagnie Franq’aise ees Voitures Electromobiles Electric Car. 

some new features. There is no mechanical speed-changing gear 
and the single motor has been replaced by two motors, each of which 
drives a rear wheel by gearing ; change and differential are therefore 
suppressed. The single coupler is replaced by a rheostat with handle, 
placed in the general circuit, and three buttons for connecting, in series 
or multiple circuit, the two halves of the battery, the two primaries, 
and two secondaries, according to the combinations in the following 
table. The lever for working the rheostat has ten different positions. 


Speeds. 

Accumulators. 

Field Magnets of each Motor. 

Motors. 

1 

Multiple 

Series 

Series 

2 

— 

Multiple 

— 

3 

Series 

Series 

— 

4 

— 

Multiple 

— 

5 

— 

Series 

Multiple 

6 

—r 

Multiple 

■ 





















THE AUTOMOBILE. 


526 


Hospitaller fears that, in difficult cases,, working of the rheostat and 
button may cause errors impossible with the crank of an ordinary 
coupler. The torpedo electric car with which Jenatzy won the 
kilometer record in 1899 has the form of a shell with a double 
point. It is mounted on four wheels, each 65 cm. (2 5 6 in.) in 
diameter; the two rear wheels are interdependent with the secondary 
coil ol a motor. At a speed of nearly 106 km. (65*8 miles) per hour, 
which was realised during a minute, the secondary coils turned at 
the rate of 900 revolutions per minute. Considering the power 
expended at starting (250 amperes at 200 volts), it would have 
been difficult to have this power utilised by a motor turning quicker, 
without complicating transmission and decreasing efficiency. 

The car of the Compagnie Franqaise des Voitures Automobiles 
(Fig. 516),with a body suspended on four springs, itself supported, as 
usual, by springs, has forty-four Faure-King accumulators, which are 
connected in series, and actuate a Lundell motor with tivo collectors, 
which, without interposition of any resistance during working, 
enables speeds of 4 km. to 18 km. (2-48 miles to 11 1 miles) per hour 
to be obtained. Transmission to the differential shaft is by toothed 
gear with leather pinion, and wheels and Reynolds chain. 


COUPLER OF THE COMPAGNIE FRANQAISE DES VOITURES 

ELECTROMOBILES. 


Positions 
of Coupler. 

Working. 

Field Magnets. 

Armature. 

Resistance. 

Accumulators. 

3 

Reverse Motion 

In Circuit 

Reversed Circuit 

In Circuit 

Tn Circuit. 

000 

Second Brake 

In Circuit on motor 

— 

Out of Circuit 

Out of Circuit 

00 

First Brake 

— 

— 

In Circuit on motor 

0 

Stoppage 

Open Circuit 

Open Circuit 

Out of Circuit 

Open 

In Circuit 

1 

Starting 

Series 

Series 

In Circuit 

2 

5 km. per hour 

— 

— 

Out of Circuit 


3 

4 

11 km. ,, 

14'5 km. ,, 

Multiple Circuit 

Multiple 

— 

— 


The above table shows the working of the coupler ; by pushing the 
handle more or less forward a gradual speed is obtained; by bringing 
it backwards the brake is locked, the car stopped and reversed. 
Steeling is obtained by a fore-carriage with a single pivot moving 
by aid of a toothed wheel, upon which a pinion acts, this pinion 
is fixed on a vertical shaft (placed in the column to be seen on 































ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


527 


the seat, see Fig. 516), itself actuated by a vertical hand steering 
wheel. The somewhat considerable strain needed to turn the fore- 
carriage thus is easily obtained, but less quickly than with the 
ordinary system. The driver’s seat and interchangeable body are 
fixed on the steel underframe, which may carry a coupe, victoria, or 
delivery car body if wished. The motor mechanism rests on a small 
hinged frame, supported by a steel axle and spiral springs. In 
addition to the electric brake, the car has a plate compressor and a 
shoe brake. Cars required to run only 50 km. or 60 km. (31 miles 
or 37 2 miles) without recharging have Plante type batteries, the 
cost of charging which the company estimates at 9^d. To run 
70 km. or 80 km. (43'4 miles to 497 miles) batteries with inserted 
oxides are employed, the cost for maintaining which is from 2s. 4^d. 
to 3s. 2d. per run. The energy to charge the battery per km. 
(*62 mile) is estimated by the constructors at 300 watt-hours—that is, 
2'8 ampere-hours at 110 volts. The cost of traction, comprising 
lubrication, maintenance of accumulators, and carriage work, is from 
•95d. to l*7d. per km. (T5d. to 2'7d. per mile), according to the type 
of battery employed and cost of current. The car mentioned above 
is constructed on the Bersey system, as are also some cars made by 
the Compagnie Clenerale des Voitures of Paris. One car made by 
this firm, and exhibited in 1898, had a tubular frame, a steering 
lever, and divided axle and motor acting on the rear wheels by 
toothed gear ; the accumulators were carried in two boxes, front and 
rear. Another car exhibited resembled this, but had a bar operating 
steering and coupling, the former by moving around a vertical axis 
and the latter by displacements around a horizontal axis. Thus the 
driver had only a lever and a pedal to work. 

The above cars use chiefly accumulators of the Electrical Power 
Storage Company, the Dujardin, Blot-Fulmen, Julien, and the accumu- 
larors of the Societe pour le travail Electrique des Metaux. The first 
two have inserted oxides; the third has been described (see p. 219). 
The Julien batteries are of the mono-bloc type, which derives its 
name from the form of their positive electrodes; these electrodes 
are regular blocks of the same size as the boxes in which they 
are contained, formed by superposition of corrugated sheets, 05 mm. 
('019 in.) thick; they are of the Plante form, and each is perforated 
with fifteen vertical shafts in which are placed the candles of 
the negative electrodes, formed of chloride of lead. This special 


528 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


form gives the elements exceptional solidity; a complete element 
weighs 18 kg. (35*2 lb.); its capacity is 135 ampere-hours at the 
rate of discharge of 35 amperes per hour. They are charged at 
the rate of 20 amperes at beginning and 15 at the end until 
the voltage is 2 5; their internal resistance is low. Most of the 
cars, however, have the accumulators of the Societe pour le travail 
Electrique des Metaux, described on p. 218. The forty-four elements 
weigh 750 kg. (1,650 lb.) for a coupe, which, in running order with 
driver and four passengers, weighs 2,310 kg. (5,082 lb.). It is about 
double what a battery of Fulmen accumulator cells weighs. De 
Clausonne, the Compagnie Generale’s engineer, has a marked prefer¬ 
ence for heavy accumulators for traction work; he remarks that the 
carrying of an extra 375 kg. (825 lb.) involves an insignificant expense 
only, especially when the kilowatt costs only (>9d. According to 
experience gained with electric trams, the maintenance of a heavy 
accumulator is less costly than that of a light one. For the main¬ 
tenance of the latter, from l'42d. to l*9d. must be allowed per tram- 
kilometer (2'36d. to 3*16d. per tram mile), whereas hardly *47d. to '57d. 
( - 78d. to 95d.) is reckoned with heavy accumulators like those of the 
Tudor system with Plante formation. This is due to the fact that a light 
accumulator can take only a lower number of charges. The Fulmen 
according to its maker, allows only 100 charges, and perhaps the 
number is less in work, whereas the accumulator of the Societe 
Electrique des Metaux, which had already undergone 150 at the time 
De Clausonne gave the information, seemed capable of supporting 
many more. The capacity of a heavy accumulator decreases much 
less rapidly than that of a light one when the rate of discharge is as 
variable as that on traction service. The superiority of heavy accu¬ 
mulators is increased when the relative effects of the severe vibrations 
on the battei ies are taken into account. De Clausonne recommends the 
double motor for heavy cars, and this makes it possible to dispense with 
diffeiential, toothed gear, etc. According to him, recuperation, which 
has been abandoned in the case of tramcars, is not suitable for cars 
either, whilst, on the contrary, electric brakes have the advantage 
over mechanical brakes of locking the two wheels more evenly and 
thus lessening skidding. The actual suspension by half-nippers in 
front and nippers in the rear can be replaced profitably by .nippers in 
front and crooked nippers with clicks in the rear. Steering with a 
one-pivot fore-carriage gives very good results, and the pivot ot 




ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


529 


existing cars needs lowering a little only to give greater solidity. 
Charging the batteries on the car itself involves the spilling of 
corrosive liquid, evolution of more or less explosive gas, and cannot 
be tolerated on a cab. The Aubervilliers works now have a well 
devised plant by means of which spent batteries are replaced rapidly 
by fresh ones. The method of doing this is to run the car over two 
inclined planes, one for the front wheels and the other for the rear, 
some centimetres above the platform of a hydraulic lift. A truck is 
raised by this platform and applied against the battery; the spiral 
springs suspending the latter are compressed and the chains un¬ 
hooked. Then the lift descends, and the truck conveys the battery 
to the place for recharging, running along railway lines and travelling 
platforms. An inverse operation brings the new battery to the car. 

A Milde-Mondos car employs a battery of forty Bristol elements 
with inserted oxides, each cell contained in an ebonite box and 
weighing 15 kg. (33 lb.), the complete battery weighing 600 kg. (1,320 

lb. ), which is one-third of the weight of the car ready for the road. 
The specific capacity is SB ampere-hours, and the E.M.F. 76 volts; 
the elements are connected in series. At a maximum speed of 15 

km. (93 miles) per hour, with a traction coefficient of 3 per cent, and 
an efficiency of 72 per cent, for the motor and transmission, the car 
can run on one charge a journey of 50 km. (31 miles) during 3 hours 
20 minutes; or at an average speed of 12 km. (/'4o miles), with a 
coefficient of traction of 2 5 per cent, a journey of 60 km. (37 miles) 
in 5 hours. The cells are distributed in four interchangeable 
receptacles, placed two in the front and two in the rear, in boxes 
bolted to the frame through indiarubber pads. The Postel-Vinay 
motor has field magnets with four poles and two series coils and a 
drum armature. At 1,800 revolutions its normal power is 2,250 
watts, and it weighs 200 kg. (440 lb.) with its case. Transmission is 
by toothed gear from the armature shaft to an intermediary shaft 
carrying the differential, which drives the driving wheels by pinions 
and endless chains. The ratio of this transmission is 1/22, giving 15 
km. (9-3 miles) per hour for 1,800 revolutions of the motor. The 
•coupler is constituted by two pairs of concentric sectors placed 
vertically on a marble insulating plate, on which there are contact 
studs united by a double handle worked by a fly wheel, the different 
combinations being recorded by the hand on a dial. The battery is 
connected in series, and has a constant potential, and the motor 


530 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


being excited in series, the motor couple varies in inverse proportion 
to the angular speed of the armature, this being varied by modifying 
the excitation of the field magnets. At starting, which requires a 
powerful motor couple, the circuit is closed on a first contact stud 
corresponding with a rheostat in series with the motor. The first 
speed is obtained by coupling two of the field magnets in series, and 
the second by parallel coupling, the third and fourth by two 
successive shunts on the primary. To provide against carelessness of 
the driver, and to prevent the motor burning, the brake can be 
worked and the car reversed only when the coupler has passed the 
position for stoppage. In descending a gradient the brake is worked 
by short-circuiting the motor, now become a generator, on a 
resistance; in ascending, by breaking the circuit and the action of 
two mechanical brakes. Reverse motion is obtained by reversing the 
current in the armature. The frame is formed of two U-steel & bars 
united by cioss-pieces; it is suspended over the carriages by three 
springs at a right angle in front and two parallel springs" in the rear, 
with insertion of buffer pads, the wheels having solid indiarubber 
tyres. In turn it supports, on indiarubber wedges, the accumulator 
boxes, the driver’s seat, and the car body, the latter being inter¬ 
changeable. The axles are kept parallel by guard plates, and the 
front axle has two pivots. The same builders, in 1898, constructed a 
delivery car weighing 2,800 kg. (6,160 lb.) empty, 3,500 kg. (7,700 lb.) 
loaded, supplied with current by 30 Faure-Sellon-Volkmar elements 
having a specific capacity of 7 3 ampere-hours each, weighing 33 kg’ 
(72-6 lb.); the weight of the complete battery is 29 per-cent, of the 
weight of the car, and one charge suffices for a run of 50 km. (31 
miles) in five hours. The motor gives 4,400 watts at 1600 
revolutions, and weighs 280 kg. (616 lb.). Transmission to ’the 
intermediary shaft is by toothed gear (ratio 1/30), and this shaft 
chain drives the differential mounted on the rear driving axle The 
efficiency of the motor and transmission gear is 75 per cent. Of 
the three speeds, the gieatest is 12 km. (7'4 miles) per hour 

In the 1889 cab trials a Milde & Cie. car had a frame constructed 
to carry a delivery car body transporting 600 kg. (1,320 lb. ) of goods 
with driver and a delivery man, a total of 750 kg. (l 650 lb) • or it 
could carry an omnibus body with six seats inside and two outside 
seats, with gallery for 180 kg. (396 lb.) of luggage The batterv 
consists of 44 elements, Fulman B 25 type, distributed in four boxes of 


COUPLER OF THE MILDE & CO. DELIVERY CAR, 


ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


531 




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ten elements (placed under the seats 
and moved towards the back), and 
a box of four elements in the centre. 
The indicated capacity is 200 
ampere-hours, the normal rate of 
discharge being 34 amperes on a 
level in 6 hours at 13 2 km. (8 - 2 
miles) per hour; the maximum 
journey on one charge is 85 km. 
(52*8 miles) on a level road. The 
motor, of the Postel-Vinay V 4 type, 
with series excitation, has a normal 
power of 3,000 watts, the E.M.F. 
being 83 volts; its weight is 200 kg. 
(440 lb.). The pinion on the arma¬ 
ture shaft drives the differential 
wheel placed on the intermediary 
shaft, turning in four plummer 
blocks and carrying the two pinions 
which, by aid of chains, drive the 
toothed wheels keyed on the driving 
wheels. The empty car weighs 2,310 
kg. (5,082 lb.). The wheels have 
compound indiarubber tyres. The 
specific consumption is about 75 
watt-hours per kilometre-ton, this 
rising to 92 watt-hours on certain 
roads. For the coupler positions see 
accompanying table. 

The Milde-Greffe voiturette (Fig. 
517) has a Greff e steering driving fore¬ 
carriage with a single wheel hauling a 
body with two seats, and weighing 300 
kg. (660 lb.) empty; 15 to 20 Fulmen 
B n elements make it possible to run 
60 km. (37 miles) on a level in live 
hours without recharging, from 18 to 
20 amperes being used per hour. They 
feed a two-pole series motor with ring 





















I 


532 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


armature; its normal power being 550 watts, at an E.M.F. of 30 volts. 
Ihe speed is 15 km. (9*3 miles) per hour, with 2,000 revolutions of the 
motor. The shaft drives by means of toothed gear (whose ratio is 
1/17) the shaft upon which the only driving wheel of the system is 
keyed. This shaft rotates in ball bearings fixed to the lower part of a 
hoop with T- section supporting the motor and the accumulators. 

All this structure rests on the ground only by the pivot at which 
the wheel is in contact. Under the action of a steering bar with two 
branches, similar to the shafts of a wheelbarrow, it turns around this 



Fig - . 517. Milde-Ctreffe Electric Voiturette. 


point the metal hoop rotating on eight rollers with vertical axes, 

of tw ST - T St6e ! tubular frame Paging the underframe 
. a1 ' 118 fr ame > a ^ S0 °f tubular steel, weighs 14 kg. (308 lb) 

and is mounted by four springs on metal wheels with tangent spokes’ 

under T bal beam f \ and Pelmatic tyres. The coupler placed 
nder the seat is worked by the little lever to be seen on the right of 

car, and which, by moving on its sector with seven notches" foves 
eve^se motion at two speeds, stoppage, and four forward speJs of 
0 vm., 10 km., lo km., and 19 km. (3 7 0-2 9 3 o n d n-s m ;i \ 

A pedal switches oft the circuit, and another breaks the circuit and also 
works a mechanical brake acting on pulleys keyed on the rear wick 













ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


533 


As a rule, the electric voiturette does not seem to commend itself, 
owing to the difficulty in fixing the accumulator and its slight radius 
of action. The steering driving fore-carriage, carrying a battery and 
a motor, was still less commendable, and does not promise much. 
Perhaps on account of the facilities of new supplies, and for other 
reasons, the electric voiturette will be more serviceable in America. 

The Bouquet, Garcin and Schivre car is shown by Fig. 518. The 
pastille accumulators have inserted oxides, and are claimed by the 
makers to have a capacity of from 22 to 25 ampere-hours per kg. 
(22 lb.) of plates at rates of discharge of 3 to 4 amperes. Thus these 



Fig. 518 .—Bouquet, Garcin and Schivre Electric Car. 


cars can run, without recharging, 130 km. (80 miles) on level roads 
and 25 km. (155 miles) on a rough road, the weight of the car 
being 1 ton; the accumulators represent one-third of this weight, 
and they are carried in two ebonite boxes under the seats; the 
coupling of the elements remains invariable. The motor has two 
collectors and two armatures wound on the same toothed core, 
Paccinotti system, in which the numbers of unequal windings are 
in the ratio of 5 to 3. The normal power is 4 to 5 h.p. for the 
very slight weight of 40 kg. (88 lb.), and it performs 1,500 revolutions 
for a speed of 20 km. (124 miles) per hour, and its electric efficiency 
is 0*93, the working efficiency being 0'87 ; thus the total efficiency 
transmission included is 0'80. The coupler suitably inserts, accord¬ 
ing to the speed to be obtained, the unequal windings and the 
resistances. For starting, the two armatures are coupled in series 







534 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


with series excitation and starting resistances all shunted on the 
battery; thus the motor starts with the maximum electro-motive 
force and maximum resistance. In its successive positions the 
coupler first gradually suppresses the resistance and then inserts 
the winding five only, then three only; finally for full speed 
windings five and three in opposition. Experience only can show 
whether this system is preferable to the employment of two equal 
secondary wires coupled in series or in shunt. The coupler consists 
of two cylinders, the larger one being keyed on the axle of the 
apparatus and giving the forward speeds, and the smaller one being 
loose around the same axle and giving reverse motion at any speed. 

Ihe Bore coupe has the Boi^ssou-Dore steering driving fore¬ 
carriage, described on pp. 306 and 307. Its battery comprises 44 
elements, well hidden under the driver’s seat and in the panels of the 
car; always coupled in series, they feed the series motor with vertical 
shaft placed over the fore-carriage pivot. The field magnet of 
this motor has three windings connected in series. Instead of a 
couplei, three handles rapidly break the circuit and insert variable 
resistances therein, throw one or two of the three primary windings 
out of circuit, and reverse a secondar}^ current. There are two 
mechanical brakes, one a Eehut brake on the rear naves. The 
Bouyssou-Dore fore-carriage now is built by the Compagnie Fran^aise 
des Voitures Electromobiles. 


The Patin phaeton with four seats is shown bv Fig. 519. The 
Patin accumulators are claimed to have a specific power of 40 
watts and a specific energy of 400 watt-hours, the discharge being 
accomplished in 10 hours. The corresponding figures admitted 
for the Fulmen accumulator were only 3 watts, 26 watt-hours and 
10 hours. The apparent difference is great, but its reality is not 
guaranteed here. At this rate 19 kg. (41 *8 lb.) of battery would 
suffice to give the horse-power. The phaeton carries 420 kg. 
(924 lb.) of batteries, well hidden under the seats. The motor 
(Figs.. 204 and 205, p. 225), some parts of which are aluminium to 
give it lightness, has two secondary coils and two collectors. The 
coupler makes it possible to obtain different speeds by coupling 
these coils in series or parallel, grouping the accumulators in various 
ways. A mechanical gear (described on p. 308, and illustrated bv 
Figs. 286 and 287, pp. 306 and 307) doubles the number of speeds. 
Patm exhibited in 1889 seven different cars. He replaced the axle 


ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


535 


with hollow journal (Figs. 286 and 287) with a forged one curved in 
the middle for passage of the differential, and furnished with the 
requisite number of plates to carry the plummer blocks. The motor, 
resting crosswise on this axle, drives a train of gear wheels for 
reduction of speed. In a voiturette the differential has two toothed 
wheels of different diameter, each driven by a pinion with which it 
is always in gear; these pinions are fixed by aid of a key. Patin’s 
voiturette tricycle with front steering wheel may be mentioned merely. 

The G. Richard car weighs only 650 kg. (1,430 lb.), in which 300 kg. 
(660 lb.) are for 44 Dujardin elements, which comprise the battery 



The motor of two kilowatts with a drum armature, two poles, a single 
winding, weighs, with the transmission gear, 100 kg. (220 lb.). By 
varied coupling of the accumulators and primary coils it gives the 
three speeds of 5 km., 12 km., and 20 km. (31, 7*4, and 12*4 miles) 
per hour. Thus the car easily runs from 50 km. to 60 km. (31 miles 
to 37 - 2 miles) without new supplies, and even 100 kg. (62 miles) if the 
accumulators are to be exhausted. The wheels are wood. The driver, 
who sits on the left, holds the hand steering wheel with his right 
hand and the coupler with his left; he places his right foot on the 
differential brake and his left on the circuit breaker. A hand brake 
locks on toothed wheels, forming one with the car wheels. 

The chief feature of the H. Monnard car is a motor with a single 
inductor and two armatures, forming one with the two parts of the 
axle, so as to make the differential unnecessary ; the armature runs at 






































































536 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


a slight angular speed, namely, 600 revolutions or even less, to 
decrease losses by transmission. Figs. 520 to 522 represent the 
motor and axle. The field magnet has no yoke-piece, the windings 
c and d being made around the pole-pieces e and f. Owing to this 
arrangement the magnetic circuit is closed simultaneously by the two 
armatures, which are traversed by the same magnetic flux. Were 
there a yoke, each armature would receive only half the flux, and 
with the same number of ampere turns, difference of potential being 
the same, there would be an angular speed twice as great. Y and 
f 1 are collectors placed inside; the carbon brushes are pressed against 
them by springs r, r 1 , r 11 , r 111 . The secondary wires, mounted on 
i oilers, are loose on their shafts, and drive by two pairs of gear wheels 
the journals upon which the wheels are keyed. If the resisting power 
increases on the wheel rim, the corresponding secondary wire de¬ 
creases its working and its counter-electro-motive force falls. The 
difference of potential augmenting at the terminals of the other 
secondary wire, the speed also increases; thus a differential gear is 
not required. The primary wire has a separate excitation, and four 
elements are specially devoted to it. Changes of speed are obtained 
1 >y varied couplings of the four groups of accumulators and armatures 
and the two groups of accumulators and field magnets, so as to have 
six different speeds. The separate excitation enables working of the 
brake by recuperation at slow speeds ; but if the accumulators coupled 
to the, field magnets are exhausted before those coupled to the 
armatures, efficiency becomes low. The Vulcain accumulators, with 
Plante positives and negatives, weigh 396 kg. (871*2 lb.), one-half the 
v eight of the car ready for the road. The consumption is 48 watt- 
hours per kilometre-ton, and the maker asserts that the car can run 
150 km. (93 miles) without new supplies. It has a brake of a rather 
peculiar type which can be seen at F F 1 , Fig. 520; it consists of a 
series of small shoes, S S\ of lignum vitae, threaded on a steel wire 
rope and separated from each other by copper tubes of about the 
same length as the shoes. The two end shoes are united by a spring 
which usually keeps the brake unlocked, but as soon as a pedal and 
lever apply the first shoe to the groove fixed to the nave the other 
shoes are entrained and cause locking. It has been mentioned that 
the secondary wires are mounted on rollers ; this is to avoid the wedmn* 
which oceurs^mth ball bearings where the balls only touch each other 
at a point. The tempered steel rollers employed are 140 mm. (5*5 in.) 


ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


537 


long by 8 mm. ('315 in.) in diameter; around themjare smaller rollers 
of hard steel, 35 mm. (’137 in.) in diameter, which are slightly bigger 



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538 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


are enclosed in oil-filled steel jackets made tight by leather. Monnard 
estimates the coefficient of traction is thus reduced from 002 to 00093. 

Ihe Diaullette electric cab has a peculiar form, the front con¬ 
sisting of two steps and a platform, by which the passenger enters 
the cab; it is closed by a door with two leaves, and has a semi¬ 
circular seat to accommodate four passengers. It has 44 Fulmen B 13 
elements weighing 305 kg. (671 lb.), the total weight of the loaded 
car being 1,200 kg. (2,640 lb.), and a run of 100 km. (62 miles) can be 
made without recharging. These accumulators, always coupled in 
senes, are under the bench on the floor, but this is not the best 
arrangement. An accumulator constructed to regularly give 25 
amperes can, at its maximum charge, give 50, even 75, perhaps 150, 
without inconvenience. After three or four hours, however, it cannot 
do this and it even acts as a resistance after some time, absorbing 
as much as 04 volt. Hospitalier considers that on this account 
the parallel coupling of batteries would be preferable 


COUPLER OF THE DRAULLETTE CAB. 


Position of 
Coupler. 

Working. 

Two Armatures. 

Two 

Field Magnets. 

Rheostat. 

- 1 

Reversing 

In Series and Reversed 

In Series 

' In Circuit 


Pour 1 ositions of gradual Electric Brake Locking 

0 

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Forward Motion, 1st v. 

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Out of Circuit 

4 

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— 





1 


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„ 4. Like brake 3, but rheostat in short circuit * th lheostat 

The series motor has two poles, two field magnets, two armatures 
the grouping of which, combined with a rheostat for starting gives 
r s P“ ds ’ he greatest being 20 km. (124 miles) per hour. HiLed 
around the differential shaft, the motor is supported in the rear by a 
spnng on which it rests by means of a roller. Thus it can move 
without ceasing to gear, by its leather pinion, with the differential 
wheel. From the latter the motion is transmitted to the wheels by a 
shaft and two pinions directly driving two large wheels with interior 
toothing bolted on the spokes. The total rate of reduction is 26. 
















ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


539 


The car also has a mechanical brake arranged in such a way that if 
the pedal controlling it is pressed the coupler is brought auto¬ 
matically to zero, so as to avoid starting at full speed, which might 
cause accidents, or in any case injure the motor and accumulators. 



The frame is made of V-iron lined with wood, and the rear wheels 
have a very large diameter, 1*3 m. (4 ft. 3'2 in.), the steering wheels 
being only 75 cm. (29*5 in.). The wheel base is 1*8 m. (5 ft. 10-8 in.), 
and the car turns in a radius of 2*5 m. (8 ft. 2’4 in.). The mechanism 
is at the rear in a box which has doors. 




















































































































































540 


THE AUTOMOBILE . 


Tlie T edovelli-Priestley cab is an original car characterised by its 
apion (by aid of which it can be changed from a cab with two 
places to a vis-a-vis with four), its tricycle mounting, the driving 
of the steering driving wheels by two independent motors, 1 
differential steering appliance which makes it pivot on the spot 
and by the optional addition of a small electrogenic apparatus which 
makes it possible to recharge the accumulators during a journey and 
stoppage {see Figs. 523 and 524). The fore-wheel, simply a bearing 

" ee f 01 a sma ^ P ar t of the total weight, resembles a furniture 
castor, it being movable around a vertical axle placed a little in front 
of its horizontal axis; it automatically takes the direction of the 
tangent to the trajectory of the car. As, moreover, the centre of 
gravity of the latter is under the axle, this tricycle mounting is not 
defective from the point of view of adherence in the steering wheel, 
ftach motor, the position of which is shown by Fig. 524, has its 
motion transmitted to the side wheel by belts and toothed gekr. The 
differential, speeds are obtained by coupling the motor in series or 
parallel with other resistances. The coupler, instead of bein« 
cy indncal as usual, is flat; Figs. 525 to 527 show its shape. The 
steering differential gear is on the shaft of the large belt pulleys 
ig. 528, p. 543). Supposing in that figure, for sake of simplicity, that 
the two parts of the shaft directly carry the driving wheels. The pinion 

wheels B b 7 ?® ^ Ste6ri “ g whee1 ’ « ears with toothed 
leels B, having the same axis of rotation 1) as the pinions 2; these 

ib g T i W1 l h P lmons 1 (camed by horizontal axles forming one • 
with wheels B), which themselves are in gear with the inner tee°th A 

x dependent with the toothed wheels. When the hand steering 
vheel is motionless, and the wheels are driven by the motor, it is 

the left r J 7 mUSt tUm at the Same S P ecd ' In fe ct, motion of 
the left wheel is transmitted by its pinion 2 to the corresponding 

pinion on the right, because the two pinions are keyed on the same 

handTte Pm,0n ? T t0 the ° ther ^eel. Suppose that the 

land steering wheel turns first in the absence of any action of the 

motors on the wheels of the car. Wheels B turn in the opposite 

direction to each other, and entrain the pinions 1 in the opposite 

direction around axis D; the pinions 2, fixed together so as to^orm 

one, and drawn by equal and contrary forces; remain motionless 

en the pinions 1 roll on the pinions 2, but in the opposite direction 

to each other, and transmit inverse motions to the two drivina 


ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


541 


wheels, so that the car pivots on the spot. Finally, suppose that the 
hand steering wheel turns while the motors are driving the wheels. 
The motion imparted to the latter by the motors is composed with 
that produced by rotation of the fly wheel; the pace of one is 
accelerated, whilst that of the other is retarded; then the car turns 
to the side of the latter. At the moment when the hand steering 
wheel stops, the car starts off in a straight line without the driver 
having to turn the wheel in the opposite direction to that which 




Fig-. 52V 


Fig - . 526. 


produced turning of the car. Two brakes, acting on the differential 
shaft, are controlled by the same lever as the coupler, so that the 
brakes cannot lock when the motors are in circuit. This arrange¬ 
ment makes starting at full speed impossible after working the brake. 
A second foot brake switches off' the current, which can only be 
switched back by bringing the coupler to the position of stop¬ 
page. Retrograde motion is obtained by reversing the current, 
but this operation cannot be performed unless the coupler is in the 
position of the stoppage. Thus every precaution is taken to prevent 
any working injuries to the accumulators, which run the car from 
70 km. to 80 km. (43A miles to 49*7 miles) on one charge. A much 
longer distance can be travelled—even a trip of several days can be 


i 



































































































































542 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


made by carrying a portable electro generating apparatus for charg- 
ing on the car, a petrol motor being coupled to a generating dynamo. 
1 he weight is 140 kg. (308 lb.). The dynamo can feed current to the 
accumulators during motion of the car as well as stoppage, but feeding 
ceases automatically when the accumulators are fully charged. A 
fan cools the petrol motor, which, it is said, can work for several 
days without stoppage, even without supervision, there being an 
automatic lubricating device. Thus furnished with its electrogenic 
apparatus, the \edovelli-Priestley cab works in a similar way to 
that of the Patton petrol-electric car (see p. 551). 

In the tricycle of the Barrows Vehicle Co. of America, the front 
wheel is both steering and driving as in the Milde voiturette. 
The tubular undei frame uses around it, so as to form an inverted V 
between the branches of which is the wheel, where it can turn under 
the action of the steering bar. The wheel has a toothed wheel 
66 cm. (25-9 in.) in diameter, inside which gears a pinion, 63 mm. 
(2-48 in.) in diameter, carried by the motor shaft. The motor, Riker 
type, 50 kg. (110 lb.) in weight, is fixed to the frame by the side of 
the wheel; on the other side some of the accumulators are placed 
the others being under the seat. There is a total of 24 cells, weigh¬ 
ing 180 kg. (396 lb.). The weight ot the car is more than 300 kg 
(660 lb.), exclusive of the two passengers. On one charge it can 
travel 32 km. (19'8 miles) at a good speed. 

The Morris and Salom electrobat, the first electric car that ever 
ran in America (August 31st, 1894), was a large dogcart with six 
places, mounted on wooden wheels, with iron tyres and ball bear in os 
The Morris and Salom modern type of car can be defined as follows • 
The front axle is a driving axle, the two electric motors o- ea r 
directly with the wheels ; the accumulators usually are placed under 
the driver s seat, the rear wheels are steering wheels and enable 
turning with small radius. The two axles carry an underframe 
which itself supports, at the back of the driver’s seat any kind of a 
body, even that of a delivery car. The electrobat No’ 2 which won 
the Chicago race, was driven by two Lundell motors of ’l 100 watts 
each, fed by 48 accumulator cells of the Electric Storage Batterv Co 
weighing about 285 kg. (627 lb.); the battery yields 4 kilowatt- 
hours. The maximum speed on a good level road (with wooden 
wheels and pneumatic tyres) was 32 km. (19'8 miles) per hour • the 
average journey was 45 km. (27'S miles) without recharfon- ’ The 


ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


543 


Morris and Salom patents are now worked by the Electric Vehicle 
Co., which succeeded the Electric Carriage and Wagon Co., and now 
owns the New York electric cabs, hansoms and coupes. Each of its 
cars has 48 chloride elements, weighing, with their box, 650 kg. 
(1,430 lb.). The four-pole motors perform 700 revolutions per 
minute, and develop a power of 2 h.p., sufficient, it appears, to give 
the car a speed of 19'3 km. (1T99 miles) on a good level road. The 
coupler gives three speeds, either backwards or forwards, by variable 



coupling of the two groups of elements of the battery. This last can 
be charged without removing it from the car, but at the charging 
station recently built an exhausted battery is replaced by another. 

The Sturgess Electric Motocycle Co. of Chicago ran a car in the 
Times Elerald match, driven by a Lundell motor, fed by a battery of 
36 elements, yielding regularly 30 amperes. The rear wheels were 
driving, and the front ones steering. The car, with its wooden wheels 
and indiarubber tyres, weighed 1,600 kg. (3,520 lb.) ready for the road. 

A Riker car won the first prize in the track race of Provi¬ 
dence, Rhode Island, September 7th, 1896. It had the form of a dog¬ 
cart with four seats, each of the rear wheels being driven by a 2,200 


t 

























































































































544 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


kilowatt motor fed with current by 32 chloride of lead elements; 
the normal capacity was 100 ampere-hours, and it weighed 365 kg. 
(803 lb.) that is, about half the weight of the car. In a more recent 
type, Hiker employs zinc lead accumulators, each element of which 
comprises six positive lead plates and seven negative copper plates 
electrolytically coated with zinc; 36 of these elements have an 
E.M.F. of 83'8 volts, and weigh 345 kg. (759 lb.) with their ebonite 
boxes, for a car of 825 kg. (1,815 lb.), which they could run for 68 
km. to 80 km. (42;25 miles to 49 - 7 miles) at a speed of 19'3 km. 
(11‘99 miles) per hour. For a discharge in ten hours their specific 
energy was estimated at 36 4 watt-hours; for the discharge in four 
hours it was only 2915 watt-hours. This experiment with zinc 
accumulator cells did not give very encouraging results. In the case 
of light cars, Riker seems to have abandoned two motors, which, with 
equal power, cost more, weighed more, and had an efficiency less than 
a single motor. This single motor, which was exhibited b}^ the 
Societe Automobile at the Tuileries Exhibition in 1899, is hinged by 
two collars on the tubular jacket of the axle, and suspended to the 
body by a rod with two springs like a tramway motor. These springs 
form, an elastic buffer against the reaction of the motor, to make 
starting smooth (see Fig. 529). The armature shaft drives, by aid of 
a pmion, a toothed wheel, mounted on the shaft, and also the pulley 
of a plate compressor, locking both rear and front, worked by a 
pedal. Brake and toothed gear are enclosed in a case placed on the 
centre of the rear axle. The latter is not divided, and its centre, 
which is reinforced, is protected by the tubular gear case surrounding 
it. The differential gear is placed on the nave of a wheel. The 
rs feedm 0 this motor may be of any type. In France, 
Fulmen elements are employed, weighing 450 kg. (990 lb.), for a 
car of about 900 kg. (1,980 lb.). The two-pole motor has two 
drum-wound armatures; it is completely encased, but collector and 
brusher can easily be inspected by means of doors. Grouping of 
the accumulators and the primary coils give four speeds, 6 km 12 
km., 18 kin., and 25 km. (3'7, 7'4, 9‘9, and 155 miles) per hour. 
Backward motion is obtained in the first two speeds by reversing the 
current in the motor. When the mechanical brake is worked, a°cut¬ 
off’ automatically breaks the current, and only allows it to be switched 
on again when the lever of the coupler has been brought previously 
to zero ; then the motor cannot be started at full speed. The frame 


% 


ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


545 


made of hammered steel tubes, has its small sides formed by the 
fore axle and tube surrounding the rear axle; one of the large sides 
is hinged around the fore axle, and the two can turn around that in 
the rear. Great pliancy results, the two always being applied to the 
ground, whilst the axles remain constantly in vertical parallel planes. 
The wheels have ball bearings with tangent spokes, and Hartford 
single tube pneumatic tyres. The front steering wheels pivot in 
place. For this purpose the axis of rotation, instead of being outside 
the wheel, is inside, and meets the ground at the point where the 



latter is in contact with it; the pivot is mounted on points inside a 
drum, around which the nave turns on ball bearings (see Fig. 530). 

Columbia cars are built by the Electric Vehicle Company, of 
Hartford, Connecticut, which employs cycle style of structure; the 
wheels have steel points, tangent spokes, and have a diameter of 
90 cm. (35'4 in.) at the rear, and 80 cm. (31 4 in.) in the front, with 
pneumatic tyres of 75 mm. (2'95 in.) ; there are ball bearings for the 
car, motor, transmission gear, and steering gear; steering is accom¬ 
plished by a non-reversible lever; the tubular frame is of nickel 
steel, and the tubes are larg-e enough for them to be annealed. Those 
on the sides and in front of the car are doubly rigid, and are brazed 
at various points; the lower front tube supports a horizontal pivot 
around which the steering axle can move freely in a vertical plane. 
The rear of the frame is formed by a single tube, which acts as a 















































































546 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


bridge to carry the motor and axle. The accumulators are perhaps 
the parts on which least study has been expended. The positive 
plates are of the Plante formation, whilst the negatives have inserted 
oxides. Their capacity is 70 ampere-hours, with average rate of 
discharge of 25 amperes, and weight 160 kg. (352 lb.), assuming a run 
of about 50 km. (31 miles) on a good road. The efficiency is 
oidinaiy, but the constructors maintain that duration is a compensa¬ 
tion. It is believed, however, that these accumulators have been 



abandoned. The Edie system four-pole motor is employed with 
forged iron carcase; the Gramme armature weighs 57 kw (1254 lbl 
and gives 100 revolutions per minute, the current being at 75 volts • 
the power is a little less than 2 h.p„ but this can be doubled for’ 
half an hour without danger. Its efficiency is estimated at 80 per 
ccn ., that of the transmission 90 per cent., and the final efficiency 

72 P 7 cent - , The s Pf eds - 5 km - to 10 km. (31 miles to 6-2 miles 
are obtained by varied coupling of the accumulators and the field 

magnets of the motors. All the movable connections have holes of 
certain diameter for the positive and another for the negatives to 
avoid all possible error. An electric lamp fixed at the end of a W 

flexible cord enables the parts of the car to be inspected conveniently 
at night. These and other details give a happy fi nish to a ve ‘!( 



















E LEG TRIG AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


547 


caieful general structure, which represents everything that is best in 
American automobile practice. There are three types of Columbia 
cars, which differ in the motor and transmission wheels. The 
phaeton with two places (Figs. 531 and 532) has a single motor ot 
less than 2 h.p., mounted on a hollow shaft concentric with the 
rear axle, which it controls by two pairs of reducing gear wheels, the 
last wheel of which is simply the differential toothed wheel. All 



Fig. 532. —Rear View of Columbia Electric Car. 


this forms a very compact ensemble, which does not deprive the car 
of its elegant carriage aspect. The motor power may be regarded as 
low for a car which, with two passengers, does not weigh less than 
1 ton. The motor is fed by four batteries, and three speeds are 
given by coupling these batteries in various ways, the field magnets 
remaining in series at a speed of 196 km. (12T miles) per hour. 
Consumption is 73 watt-hours per kilometre-ton (122 watt-hours per 
mile ton). The body is suspended by three half-nipper springs 
placed transversally. The car has four places facing the front, and 
two motors, each controlling by a pinion a toothed crown enclosed in 
a case and mounted on the driving wheel. When the two motors 
are connected in series they give the same power, and as long as the 

j j 2 













548 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


two wheels turn at the same speed they run at the same voltage. 
In a curve the inner wheel decreases its speed, and the corresponding 
voltage of the motor diminishes, the difference being transferred to 
the other motor, the required increase of speed resulting for the 
outer wheel. This arrangement does not seem to have given all that 
was expected. Consequently the car with four places back to back 
has one motor placed like that of the phaeton with two places. 
This car, weighing 1,300 kg. (2,860 lb.) with its four passengers, 
consumes 35 amperes on level ground. The accumulators are 


divided into six groups of seven elements* there are four forward 
speeds and three back. The Columbia cars have a rather peculiar 
crown brake, as shown by Fig. 533, in which the wheel is shown 
removed to the right. A bronze crown fixed to the underframe 
surrounds the toothed wheel drum of the differential, only giving 
passage to the pinion gearing with this drum. The differential gear 
has a pulley upon which a band of cleft steel is applied by a set of 
pedal-operated levers. The pedal begins by switching off the 
circuit, and can be fastened at a suitable notch when the locking 
has to be maintained. The controlling of the car is operated by 
foui paits: the steering lever worked with the right hand, the 
coupler with the left, the mechanical brake with the right foot, and 
a heel piece for reverse motion worked with the left foot, * The 
coupler is very simple, but does not allow of electric locking of 
the wheels, nor of recuperation, and if the car is stopped by^the 
mechanical brake without bringing the coupler to the stopping 
point, there is a risk of starting off again at third speed. The Society 
Electromotion exhibited in 1899 a pretty type of Columbia car with 
one and two motors, all having Phoenix accumulators. 

Cleveland cars are built by the Cleveland Machine Screw Company 
according to plans by Sperry. The accumulators weigh 375 k<>* 
(825 lb.) for a motor of 900 kg. (1,980 lb.), and feed a bipolar series motrn 
giving only 2 h.p. under 86 volts and 1,800 revolutions per minute 
but capable of supporting an extra charge of 150 per cent It is 
attached to the centre of the rear axle by two ball bearings on either 
side of the differential, and united to the frame by an elastic sus¬ 
pender It is surrounded by an aluminium gear case, and transmits 
motion to the differential by a system of toothed wheels with double 
reduction. There are three different speeds, 4 km 8 km *mrl 
16 km. (248, m „d » mile.) h „ r , otaj J 


ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


549 


couplings of the accumulators. An accelerator acts by decreasing 
excitation by shunting the field magnets. By regulating the shunt a 
variable speed is obtained, which may attain 32 km. (19*9 miles) per 
hour. There is also a mechanical speed-changing gear. The car has 
three brakes, electric, mechanical, and shoe. Steering is operated by a 
loose bar ; the sockets of the steering wheel pivots are inclined so that 
their prolongations intersect the ground at the point of contact of 
the wheels. The underframe is formed of two tubular triangles con¬ 
necting the axles; and it is reinforced by rods joining two points of 
the axle to two points of the side bars. The body rests in front on 



Fig. 533. —Columbia Crown Brake. 

the middle of a spring, by a horizontal axis which allows the axles to 
rock in a vertical plane ; at the rear it rests on two longitudinal 
nippers. The controlling parts are very simple ; the steering bar also 
works the coupler and acts as a stopping lever and brake lever. The 
brake is worked by a pedal and the accelerator by a button. 

The Elieson car of early design was furnished with Lamina 
accumulators (see p. 214), and a motor with a double armature series- 
wound. Changes of speed are obtained by differently coupling the 
accumulators and armature. The characteristic parts are the under¬ 
frame and the transmission gear. The first is formed of Mannesmann 
steel welded tubes; the motor rests on a wooden cross-bar suspended 
on the frame between the two axles by aid of keys; its shaft has on 
its ends two gun metal pinions united by chains to the toothed wheels 
fixed on the car wheels. At every third link there is a wedge on the 
chains, these wedges resting on two bands of leather covering the 













550 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


toothed wheels of the car wheels, and adherence between them and 
the leather causes entraining of the vehicle. This motion is not 
obtained without some degree of sliding between the tw T o parts, and 
thus the differential can be dispensed with. The fore-carriage is 
formed by an axle shorter than the rear, carrying tw r o low wheels 
which can turn under the frame around a pivot. All this structure 
is very simple, but also somewhat ugly, and the latter holds good 
whether the interchangeable body be that of a coupe, carriage, etc. 

Bersey cars were adopted by the Great Horseless Carriage Com¬ 
pany for the London cabs, and by the Compagnie Fran^aise des 
Voitures Electromobiles, as described on p. 527. At the end of 
1897, the London cabs had batteries comprised of 40 cells of the 
E. P. S. tiaction type, with Faure-King electrodes; the total weight 
vas 600 kg. (1,320 lb.), and the capacity 170 ampere-hours for an 
intensity of discharge of 30 amperes. The motor w r as of the 3 h.p. 
Johnson-Lundell type. The company lias now discontinued work 
foi leasons which are not in any way technical, one being the high 
cost of current. 


The Berlin Allgemeinen Omnibus Gesellscliaft has an omnibus 
with twenty seats and room for six persons standing, and its total 
weight is 6,650 kg. (14,630 lb.); 24 boxes, each containing 5 cells, 
lepresent 1,<00 kg. (3,740 lb.) of this weight. Starting is operated at 
o0 amperes at 225 volts; at a speed of from 6 km. to 12 km. (3*7 miles 
to i -4 miles) per hour the current varies from 35 to 40 amperes. The 
omnibus can run 60 km. (37 nnles) on one charg’e. 

The Lolmer car, of ienna, is a coupe furnished with 42 Vtiste 
and Bupprecht cells, weighing 480 kg. (1,056 lb.) for a capacity of 
from 95 to 100 ampere-hours. They are supported by the steering- 
tore wdieels, being lodged under the drivers seat in front. The Ego- e r 
motor is suspended on one side to the fore axle and on the other to 
ong springs, which allow it to rock. It forms one with the differential, 
whose shaft crosses it to transmit motion to the wheel by interior 
gear and pinions, reducing it in the ratio of 6 to 1. The coupler 
gives eight positions for forward speeds to a maximum of 16 km 
(9 9 miles) per hour, one for backward motion and two for the brake, 
teeiing is operated on the Morris and Salem system. 


551 


CHAPTER XX. 

PETROL-ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 

The greatest inconvenience of the petrol motor, as has been shown in 
former chapters, is its want of elasticity ; and to enable it, in spite of 
this defect, to give the required maximum of work at starting and 
when ascending gradients, it must have an excess of power which 
there is no use for in ordinary circumstances, where the petrol spirit 
yields only a part of its theoretical heat energy. To obtain variable 
speeds with a petrol motor there has to be a complicated working of 
wheel gearorpulleys and belts, which waste much power in transmission. 
On the other hand, a large amount of energy can be carried on a petrol 
car, and further supplies can be obtained easily on the road. Opposite 
in every way to this is the electric motor; this has remarkable 
elasticity, being able to bring the requisite amount of energy into 
play at each moment and so dispense with mechanical speed-changing 
gear, but its great disadvantage is that frequent new supplies are 
essential. This balancing of advantages and disadvantages naturally 
has led to the idea of associating two motors, one of each type, in the 
same car. The first case of this met with in practice, it is believed, 
was W. H. Patton’s arrangement that was exhibited at Chicago. 
Patton had had experience in tramcar construction, and his tramcars, 
dating from 1890, each had a gas engine driving a generating 
dynamo, which supplied current to two electric motors which drove 
the car wheels. Heilmann had a similar arrangement on two electric 
locomotives built for the Western Railway of France, though he used 
a steRm engine, not a gas engine. In Pattons tiamcais, inseited 
between the dynamo and the driven motor, was a battery of accumu¬ 
lators which formed a reserve of energy, to be drawn on when 
required. In Patton’s first real automobile employing the double 
system, a petrol motor ran a dynamo which gave its current to 
a battery of accumulators; these in turn ran an electric motor, 
which finally drove the vehicle. 

Such a system as is outlined above necessarily is complicated, but 


552 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


in May, 1890, H. J. Dowsing patented a much simpler combination. 
A continuous current dynamo is fixed on the car and is driven by the 
surplus power of the petrol motor, the dynamo yielding current with 
which to charge accumulators. The connections are so arranged that 
when the speed falls below normal, the dynamo becomes a motor 
driven by the accumulators it previously was charging, belts trans¬ 
mitting the motion to the axle ; in the same way the dynamo-motor 
serves for starting the petrol motor. The motor and the accumulators 
do not have to sustain heavy loads and can be of light construction. 



iig. 534.— PiEPER Petrol-Electric Car. 


ie Pieper car, exhibited at the Tuileries in 1899 by the Liege 
hmi, is on the above system, and it is shown by Figs. 534 to 536. 

he petrol motor of about 31 h.p. is placed vertically in front of the 
cai at A, and is fed by a bubbling carburetter with constant level- 
he one motor cylinder has flanges being air-cooled, though the head 
and valve boxes are cooled by water which circulates through a 
radiator. Ignition is electric; the exhaust gases pass througlTbox 
. ie motoi shaft J, parallel to the car axis, has at K a flexible 
coupling, and enclosed in the gear case E is a dynamo of ] SOft 
watts. The ** l,„ *. a S?*« » 

m the case I, filled with oil, and receives two toothed wheels gearing 
constantly with two others on the speed-changing shaft The latter 
has an elastic coupling H, and is terminally a bevel ^n 
which engages with the differential wheel inside an oil-filled case 
















PETROL-ELEC TRIG AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


553 


(G, Fig. 534). The battery of accumulators, weighing only 125 kg. 
(275 lb.), is composed of 40 cells always connected in series placed 
in ebonite boxes with double lids to prevent acid being spilled. It 
can give as much as 20 watts per kg. (22 lb.) of its weight. It is 
hidden under the car seat suspended to the transversal springs, which 
also support the body, and which is visible in Fig. 535 over the axles. 
The latter are connected by two heav}^ D-steel tubes, which support 
all the mechanism; the general rigidity is assured by four rods F, 



Fig. 535. —Pieper Petrol-Electric Car. 


Figs. 534 and 535, the two rear ones being reinforced by other 
rods. The fore steering axle has pivots, and is controlled by a 
hand steering wheel. The wheels with ball bearings have steel 
reinforced tangent spokes with special pneumatic tyres. Two pedal 
brakes act respectively on the motor shaft and wheel naves, the 
brakes for the latter being the stronger of the two. Fig. 536 
represents the body, usually placed on the underframe, but the 
latter, perfectly straight, can carry any other kind of body. The 
car is said to weigh, without passengers and ready for the road, 
400 kg. (880 lb.), but 600 kg. (1,320 lb.) is more probable. 

When running on a level, the vehicle does not need all the power 
given by the petrol motor turning at its usual speed, and so the 
excess is consumed by the dynamo, which is keyed on its shaft, and 
charges the accumulators. Obviously, if gradients or bad roads 











554 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


- ^ ncrease ^he resistance of the car to rolling, the petrol motor will 
have less surplus power, and the intensity of the current yielded by 
the dynamo will diminish. As the resistance to the car increases, the 
dynamo receives still less power, and its speed decreases, until at last 
the accumulators discharge themselves into the dynamo, which then 
works as a motor. This is excited in shunt, so that the direction of 
the current remains the same in the primary coil whatever that of 
the current to the brushes ; so that whether the dynamo is charging, 
01 is itself driven, it continues to turn in the same direction as the 
petrol motor, to which its power is added, the total available power 
being as much as 6 h.p., nearly double that of the petrol motor 
a one. The speed of the car may be from 25 km. to 30 km. (155 
miles to 18*6 miles) per hour on a level, and it does not fall to less 
tian 12 km. (7*4 miles) on rising gradients of 12 per cent. Such 
results are remarkable for a 3J h.p. motor. As the battery of accumu- 
ators forms a reserve of energy, in difficult roads the mechanism can be 
engaged and disengaged without fear either of the motor racing when 
c lsengaging oi of speed slackening too much when engaging. The petrol 
motor always works at full charge, and therefore is economic; moreover, 
it directly drives the vehicle, and its energy is used very satisfactorily! 

ie accumulators can be as light, as above stated, because they 
are intended solely to retain and restore the motor’s surplus power. 
Ihe accumulator competition of the Automobile Club of France 
demonstrated that a battery of a certain capacity capable of 

SU PP ^ in £ at tlie beginning of the discharge during 30 seconds a 
current of 100 amperes at an E.M.F. of from 90 to 95 per cent, of 
the voltage of the charging current, inverses for the same current 
W ien ^ 11S * s ieffiiired after it has given 60 to 70 per cent, of its 
normal capacity. Instead of producing 100 amperes at 1*8 volts—that 
is, 180 watts—the accumulator absorbs 0‘3 to 05 volt, this corre¬ 
sponding to 30 or 50 watts at the rate of 100 amperes. ’ This shows 
that accumulators constantly charged can work at very hioh specific 
rates, and that the battery can be considerably reduced in weight 
price, and dimensions. On the other hand, it should be designed to 
gne great power rather than a great capacity in energy. In the 
extreme case of a very steep and long rising gradient, it would suffice 
to disengage the gear and stop the vehicle as soon as the voltmeter 
lecorded exhausting of the accumulators; then they could be charged 
whilst the vehicle was at rest. 


PETROL-ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILE VEHICLES. 


555 


Starting the petrol motor, so difficult in ordinary cars, is 
accomplished easily here by using the dynamo as a motor, after 
having inserted a starting rheostat, the motor, of course, being keyed 
on the motor shaft. Backward motion is obtained easily also, the 
supply of carburetted mixture being cut off, the starting rheostat 
inserted, and the accumulator current being reversed by aid of a 
circuit-breaker placed below the hand-steering wheel. On long 



Fig. 536. —Pieper Petrol-Electric Car. 


falling gradients the supply of carburetted air can be stopped, and 
the petrol motor allowed to work empty and act as a brake, the 
dynamo charging the accumulators and at the same time preventing 
the car from racing. If an accident happens to the petrol motor, it 
can be separated from the rest of the mechanism by unfastening the 
connection K (Fig. 534), and the car can be worked by the dynamo 
motor run from the accumulators. In ordinary circumstances connec¬ 
tions K and H allow shaft J to follow the movements of the under¬ 
frame, and facilitate mounting the structure. All these advantages are 
very remarkable, and the Pieper car demonstrated that they were 
realisable with a much less complicated system than was previously 
thought. If really practical, it is destined to have a great development. 









556 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


The Munson car is a petrol-electric vehicle, and it is made by the 
Munson Electric Motor Co., of La Porte, Indiana, U.S.A. Its petrol 
motor has two cylinders and equilibrated cranks directly driving 
a dynamo, whose ring armature is of large diameter, so as to act as a 
'' '' u:o ior Mie petrol motor. The armature has a double winding 
and a. disc collector. The field magnets have six poles excited by 
a single tine wire coil, and are electrically divided into two parts 
respectively connected to each of the two batteries of accumulators, 
so that the coupling of these two batteries does not alter the 
excitation of the dynamo enclosed in a closed gear case. By aid 
ot the couplers the batteries can be connected in series or shunt, 
this giving, the motor two speeds. A mechanical change of speed 
m the ratio of I to 4 gives a total of four speeds. Hospitalier 
remarks that for two of these speeds the petrol motor turns at only 
halt speed, and consequently at half power, and that in such 
circumstances its employment must be unsatisfactory. Reverse 
motion is given by a special position of the coupler. 

Another petrol-electric vehicle is the heavy goods wagon now 
employed by the Fisher Equipment Company of Chicago. A petrol 
o oi o 8 i.p., with three cylinders, presumably drives a dynamo 
w ich actuates two electric motors, each of 5 h.-p., which drive the 
, of the „ b, toothed g„t. I, , pp eJ, lb „ 

of tC P , m f ° r 18 neYer em P% ed for the direct propulsion 

the cai and this arrangement cannot be economic. The energy 

no absorbed by the actual propulsion is reserved in a battery 

w, * ur "ulator cells, with a capacity of 144 ampere-hours. This 

w r,2 4 ’ 0 , S ' kg ' (8,98 ° ^ em Ptyand 7,257 kg. (15,965 lb.t 

n . 2 k ,r?fV , v C “ attam Spe6ds ° f C ' 4 km ” 96 km., and 
111 \*> b, and 7 miles) per hour. 


557 


CHAPTER XXL 

TABLES GIVING RESULTS OF AUTOMOBILE TRIALS, EFFICIENCY TESTS, 

AND RACES. 

Perhaps the most satisfactory way of presenting a comprehensive 
yet succinct record of what the automobile already has accomplished 
on common roads, is to tabulate briefly the results of the various 
trials and races that have been held under the auspices of such 
influential bodies as the automobile clubs of France and England, 
the Liverpool Self-propelled Traffic Association, and other approved 
authorities. The data for the tables which constitute this chapter 
are taken from various sources, most of them official, and special 
acknowledgment must be made of the help afforded by the columns of 
the Automotor Journal in this direction. The tables are arranged in 
chronological order as far as considerations of space allow, and the 
index (pp. 585 to 608) will be found a ready means of disclosing the 
whereabouts of any particular table should the reader fail to find it 
by means of the above arrangement. The events here recorded 
range over a period of more than seven years, between July, 1894, and 
September, 1901, and their order in these pages is as follows:— 
Paris-Rouen race, July, 1894; Paris-Bordeaux race, June, 1895 ; Paris- 
Marseilles race, September, 1896; Chicago trials, 1895; Poids Lourds 
(Heavy Vehicle trials), Versailles, 1897 and 1898; Paris-Dieppe race, 
July, 1897 ; Paris-Amsterdam race, July, 1898; Hackney Vehicle 
trials, Paris, 1898 and 1899; Heavy Vehicle trials, Liverpool, 1898 ; 
N ice-Castellane race, March, 1899; Paris-Bordeaux race, May, 1899; 
Tour de France, July, 1899 ; Accumulator Trial by Automobile Club 
of France, 1899 ; Heavy Wagon trial, Richmond, June, 1899; Paris- 
Bordeaux race, May, 1901; Richmond trials, June, 1899 ; Automobile 
Club trials, April and May, 1900; Paris-Roubaix alcohol trials, April, 
1901 ; Paris-Berlin race, June, 1901; Heavy Vehicle trials, Liverpool, 
1899 and 1901. 


558 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 



* With Serpollet Boiler. 

RACE : PARIS—BOR DEAUX AND BACK (about 1,200 km .), JUNE 11,1895. 

Constructor of Vehicle. 


Persons 

Carried. 


Type of Motor. 


Panhard and Levassor 
Peugeot ... 

J5 

>> 

Roger 

Panhard and Levassor 

Roger 
Bollee 


Daimler Petrol 


7 7 

Benz Petrol 
Daimler Petrol 


Horse- 

Power. 

Time. 

H. M. 

Average Speed 
jin km. per hour 
(approx.). 

3-5 

48 

47 

245 

3-5 

54 

35 

21-9 

3*5 

59 

48 

20 

3-5 

59 

49 

20 

— 

64 

30 

18-5 

3-5 

72 

14 

17 

3-5 

78 

7 

15-3 

— 

82 

48 

14-5 

— 

90 

3 

13-2 



Average Speed 
in km. per hour 
(approx.). 


Panhard and Levassor 




De Dion-Bouton 
Panhard and Levassor. 
Peugeot ... 

Delahaye 

Peugeot . 

Delahaye 
Maison Parisienne 

Laudry and Be} r roux 
Michelin and Bollee 
Motor-cycles. 

De Dion-Michelin 
De Dion-Bouton 


Daimler Petrol 

. 99 

De Dion-Bouton 
Daimler Petrol 
Peugeot Petrol 
Delahaye Petrol 
Peugeot 
Delahaye 
Benz Petrol 


Bollee 

De Dion-Bouton 


73 30 
83 13 


23-2 

16-40 































































CHICAGO TRIALS, NOVEMBER, 1895. 


TABLES GIVING RESULTS OF AUTOMOBILE TRIALS, ETC. 559 


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Benz 

Duryea 

Clerk 

Lewis 

Mueller- 

Benz. 

mojoja JO edAx 

Lundell 

Lundell 

Constructor of Vehicle. 

Petrol. 

De la Yex-gne 

Duryea . 

Haynes and Apperson 

Lewis 

Macy—Roger 

Mueller 

Constructor of Vehicle. 

Electric. 

Morris and Salmon 

Sturges Electric Motocycle Co. 
















































































POIDS LOURDS (HEAVY VEHICLE TRIALS) VERSAILLES, 1897 and 1898 


560 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 














































































TABLES GIVING RESULTS OF AUTOMOBILE TRIALS, ETC. 561 


RACE: PARIS—DIEPPE (about 170km.), 24 JULY, 1897. 


Constructor of Vehicle. 

Persons 

Carried. 

Type of Motor. 

Horse- 

Power. 

Time, 
n. m. 

Average Speed 
in km. per 
hour (approx.). 

L. Bollee 

1 

L. Bollee Petrol 

3 

4 14 

40-4 

De Dion-Bouton 

4 

Be Dion-Bouton Steam 

6 

4 19 

39-6 

Panhard and Levassor 

2 

Daimler Petrol 

6 

4 36 

37-2 


2 


6 

4 38 

36-8 

L. Bollee 

1 

L. Bollee Petrol 

3 

4 42 

36-4 

Be Bion-Bouton(Tricycle) 

1 

De Dion-Bouton Petrol 

H 

4 45 

35-7 

n 

1 


H 

4 45 

35*7 


1 


H 

5 5 

32-8 

A. Bollee 

2 

A. Bollee 


5 17 

32-3 

Panhard and Levassor 

2 

Daimler Petrol 

6 

5 19 

31-9 

Peugeot 

2 

Peugeot 

6 

5 28 

31-4 

Delahaye 

6 

Delahaye 

6 

5 41 

30 

L. Bollee 

1 

L. Bollee 

3 

5 44 

29-8 

Mors 

2 

Mors 

5 

5 46 

29-6 

Delahaye 

6 

Delahaye 

6 

5 58 

28-6 

Peugeot 

6 

Peugeot 

6 

6 27 

26-5 


RACE: PARIS—AMSTERDAM AND BACK (about 1520 km.), 

7 JULY, 1898. 


Constructor of Vehicle. 

Persons 

Carried. 

Type of Motor. 

Horse 

Power. 

Time. 

H. M. 

Average Speed 
in km. per hour 
(approx.). 

Panhard and Levassor 

2 

Daimler Petrol 

8 

33 

4 

44-7 


2 

y y 

8 

33 25 

42-9 

A. Bollee 

9 

A. Bollee 

8 

34 

8 

42 

Panhard and Levassor 

2 ' 

Daimler Petrol 

8 

34 

58 

41-1 

A. Bollee 

2 

A. Bollee 

8 

35 

19 

40-6 

Panhard and Levassor 

2 

Daimler Petrol 

8 

35 45 

40 

Peugeot 

2 

Peugeot 

8 

36 

20 

39*4 


2 


8 

38 

26 

37-3 

Mors 

2 

Mors 

6 

38 41 

37-1 

Peugeot 

2 

Peugeot 

6 

39 

30 

36-3 

Mors 

2 

Mors 

6 

43 

58 

32-8 

G. Bichard 

2 

G. Bichard 

4 

57 27 

25 

Motor Cycles. 

Phoebus 

1 

De Dion-Bouton 

If 

39 

36 

36-3. 

De Dion-Bouton 

1 

y y 

If 

41 

20 

34-7 

Decauville 

1 

Decauville 

9 i 

50 

14 

28-6 

De Dion-Bouton 

1 

De Dion-Bouton 

1 4 

52 42 

27-2 ' 

L. Bollee 

1 

L. Bollee 

4 

54 

3 

26-7 

De Dion-Bouton 

1 

De Dion-Bouton 

1| 

54 

19 

26-5 

>> 

1 

5? 

n 

58 

51 

24-5 


K Iv 


I 















































Number of Vehicle. 


562 


the automobile. 

HACKNEY VEHICLE TRIALS: PARIS, JUNE, 1898 and 1899. 


Vehicle. 


-e.; 


Consumption of 
Energy. 


1898 Krieger Coupe 

1899 

1898 Jeantaud Cab 

1899 

1898 Jenatzy Coupe 

1899 


I kg. 

3*4 44b/17 457 

— 44b/17 , 484 
3T ; 44b/ 15 i 404 

— 44b/15 

4 44b/21 



km. 

13-8 

8-9-23-6 

13-37 

15-8-20 

13-77 

13-25 


watt-hrs. 

1S6 

115-5-151 

167-8 

112-4-126-4 

221 

102-136-4 
Petrol Spirit. 

0-271. 


Cost per ton- 
mile of load. 


Constructors. 


<D 


Liquid Fuel ] 
Engineering Co. ; 
(Lifu). ) 

( Steam Carriage 
and Wagon Co. 
(Thorny croft). 


Lancashire 


5- 340 2-388 2-2 834 143*5 

9 551 3-85 

6- 157 2-825 

7- 426 2-863 



Average Speed 
per hou 

Petroleum in 
gallons. 

r* r/2 

— '■d 

« g 

a| 

Water in 
gallons. 

Motive 

Power. 

Attendants. 





d. 

d. 

8-287 

•298 

— 

2-06 

*1-22 

•55 

3-406 

— 

4-03 

1-93 

•36 

•91 

5-975 

— 

3-64 

1-46 

•32 

•91 

5*245 

•13 

— 

•84 

* -53 

•47 


Constructor of Vehicle. 

Horse- 

Power 

of 

Motor. 

Time. 

Average Speed in km. 
per hour. 


H. 

M. 

For whole 
course. 

91 km. 
hilly course. 

Automobiles. 

Peugeot 

17 

2 

53 

41-4 

~ 

38-26 

33-9 

32-7 

32-1 

Panhard and Levassor 

8 

3 

19 

36 

35 

Peugeot 

10 

3 

23 

De Dietrich 

Motor Cycles. 

9 

3 

26 

34 

De Dion-Bouton 

3 

2 

59 

39 



1 "75 

3 

28 

34 

_____ 


Weight Unloaded. 


Not less than 200 kg. 




Not more than 200 k<>-. 































































































TABLES GIVING RESULTS OF AUTOMOBILE TRIALS, ETC. 563 


RACE : PARIS—BORDEAUX (565 km.), 24 MAY, 1899. 


Constructor of Vehicle. 

Type of Motor. 

Horse- 
Power of 
Motor. 

Persons 

Carried. 

Time. 

H. M. 

Average Speed 
in km. per hour. 

Panhard and Levassor 

* 

Daimler 

12 

2 

11 

43 

48*1 

yy 


12 

2 

11 

51 

47*4 

y y 

y y 

12 

2 

12 

32 

45 *05 

Mors 

Mors 

15 

2 

13 

18 

42*4 

De Lion-Bouton (Tricycle) 

Do Dion 

2-25 

1 

13 

23 

42*15 

y y 

yy 

2-25 

1 

13 

25 

41*9 

y y 

5> 

2-25 

1 

13 

45 

41*02 

Phoebus 

Aster 

1*75 

1 

15 

6 

37*32 

Mors 

Mors 

13 

2 

15 

20 

36*83 

Peugeot 

Peugeot 

10 

2 

15 

23 

36*67 

Mors 

Mors 

10 

2 

15 

51 

32*5 

A. Bollee 

A. Bollee 

9*5 

— 

15 

52 

32*34 


TOUR DE FRANCE (2,219 km.), 16 JULY, 1899. 


Constructor of 
Vehicle. 

Horse- 
Power 
of 

Motor. 

Time. 

H. M. 

Average 
Speed in 
km. 

per hour. 

Constructor of 
Vehicle. 

Horse- 

Power 

of 

Motor. 

Time. 

H. M. 

Average 
Speed in 
km. 

per hour. 

Panhard & Levassor 

16 

44 

43 

51*1 

Decauville 

4 

125 

25 

17*6 

yy 

12 

49 

37 

45*7 

Alotor Tricycles. 





yy 

12 

49 

44 

45*56 

De Dion-Bouton 

21 

50 

58 

44*5 

yy 

12 

52 

34 

43*1 

j) 

21 

51 

32 

44 

Amedee Bollee 

10 

53 

29 

42*4 


2? 

53 

38 

42*2 

Panhard & Levassor 

12 

58 

46 

32*5 

) y 

21 

55 

40 

40*6 

yy 

12 

75 

45 

29*5 

7? 

21 

56 

7 

40*3 

Mors 

12 

80 

14 

27*8 

Aster 


56 

30 

40 

y y 

12 

166 

6 

13*2 

De Dion-Bouton 

21 

58 

49 

38*9 

Decauville 

4 

67 

16 

33*3 

yy 

4 

71 

30 

31*3 

yy 

4 

75 

43 

29*5 

yy 

2i 

93 

44 

23*7 


ACCUMULATOR TRIAL BY AUTOMOBILE CLUB OF FRANCE, 1899. 


Type of 

Accumulator. 

Plates. 

Weight. 

Space Occupied. 

Nominal Number 
of Charges— 
Discharges. 

Actual Number 
of Charges. 

Actual Number 
of Discharges. 

Total Energy 
Absorbed. 

Total Energy 
Yielded. 

Maximum 
Monthly Yield. 

Minimum 
Monthly Yield. 

Average Yield. 


+ - 

kg. 

dm 3 . 




kilowatt- 

kilowatt- 

Per 

Per 

Per 








hours. 

hours. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

Blot-Fuhnen 

PI. F. 

109*8 

58*7 

135 

135 

132 

210*85 

143*9 

74 

30 

68 

Fulmen 

F. F. 

76*5 

39 

100 

100 

98 

154*7 

101*9 

76 

55 

66 

Metaux 

PI. F. 

104 

47*4 

82 

82 

71 

136*05 

76*4 

73 

36*5 

56 

Pescetto 

F. F.j 

128 

85*5 

141 

141 

128 

228*65 

130*6 

60*5 

48 

57 

Phoenix 

F. F. 

102 

57 

103 

103 

102 

180*9 

118*85 

70 

51 

66 

Poliak 

F. F. 

119*5 

76 

82 

82 

76 

133*75 

79*55 

65 

43 

59*5 

Pope 

F. F. 

110 

87 

135 

135 

135 

220*75 

155*5 

73 

62*5 

70 

Tudor 

PI. F. 

1 

125*7 ( 

62*3 

141 

139 

135 

226*65 

135*85 * 

66 

49*5 

60 


K K 2 










































































561 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


HEAVY WAGON TRIAL (20 miles), RICHMOND, 13 JUNE, 1899. 


Constructor of 

Vehicle. 

Total Weight of 

Loaded Vehicle. 

Weight of Load. 


Tons 

Tons 

Cannstatt-Daimler 

4-7 

2-2 

9 ' 

9-4 

6 

Daimler Motor Co. 

4 "05 

1-9 

Motor Carriage Supply Co. 

8-65 


99 

4-3 

2-2 

Thorny croft 



Steam Carriage and Wagon Co. 

6-95 

3-4 

Bay leys (Ltd.) 

' _ 

a. 

— 


Horse-Power of 

Motor. 

CD* 

H 

H. M. 

Average Speed in 

miles per hour. 

Consumption of 
Fuel at Average 
Speed. 

Ton miles of total load 

at average speed given 

by 1 gallon of Petrol 

Spirit. 

20 

miles 

l 

mile 

ton 

mile 





Petrol. 






Pints 

Pints 

Pints 


7-8 

3 24 

5-88 

22 

1-1 

0-25 

34-2 

11-8 

5 9 

3-88 

32 

1-6 

0-18 

43-25 

11 

3 59 

5-02 

24 

1-2 

0-29 

27 

— 

5 19 

3-76 

32 

1-6 

0-18 

43-25 

— 

3 27 

5-84 

22 

1-1 

0-25 

34-2 





Coal. 




. 


lb. 

lb. 

lb. 


— 

3 42 

5-4 

197 

9-85 

1 *41 

— 





Coke. 






lb. 

lb. 

lb. 



4 9 

4-81 

122 

6-1 

0-92 

— 


RACE : PARIS BORDEAUX (*527‘65 km.), 29 MAY, 1901. 


Driver. 


Tourist Cars over 
650 kg. 

Fournier 
M. Farm an 
Voigt 
Pinson 
Axt 

H. Farman 
Hourgieres 
Girardot 
De Crawhez 
Lefebvre 
Berteaux 
Light cars , 400 to 
650 kg. 

Giraud 

Barras 

Edmond 

Beconnais 

Thery 

Sanz 

Rudeaux 

Uhlmann 


Constructor of 
Vehicle. 


Mors 

Panhard 

99 

99 

99 

Mors 

Panhard 

Bolide 

Panhard 


Panhard 

Darracq 

99 

Beconnais 

Decauville 

Cottereau 

Darracq 

Decauville 


6 

6 

7 

7 

7 

8 
8 
8 
8 

11 

11 


8 

8 

10 

10 

11 

11 

11 

12 


10 

41-25 

15*1 

45- 8 

46- 26 
16-8 
39-6 
51 
56-5 
41-8 
10-6 


9-9 

42-9 

25 

11- 4 
11-6 

12- 4 
49-9 
18-3 


Driver. 


Constructor of 
Vehicle. 


Light cars, 400 


to 650 kg. (Con.). 


Filtz 

Turgan & Foy 

Chabrieres 

Decauville 

Voiturettes, 250 
to 400 kg. 


L. Renault 

Renault 

M. Renault 

Ovry 

9 9 

Griis 

99 

Lot 

99 

Liberia 

Motor cycles. 

Teste 

De Dion-Bouton 

Osmout 

Bardeau 

99 

Collignon 

99 

Bardin 

99 

Gaste 

99 

Liberator. 

Holley 

De Dion-Bouton 

Cormier 

Rivierre 

>> 

Werner Bicycle 

Bucquet 

— _ 

99 


.Time. 
H. M. 


13 57-9 

14 5-7 


9 32-4 
9 40-1 
9 46-9 
9 52-6 
16 4 


8 

8 


1 

3 

8 54-1 

9 11-5 
10 30-6 
10 32 

10 30-1 

11 34-9 

12 30-9 
12 47-1 


• w com,; 

through towns, etc. 

















































RICHMOND TRIALS, JUNE, 1899. 


TABLES GIVING RESULTS OF AUTOMOBILE TRIALS, ETC. 565 


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9 

24 

54 

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28 

24 

8 

20 

45 

4 

55 

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Pi 

CD 

PQ 

p 

c3 


c3 

o 

Sx 

o 

a2 

m 

c3 

> 

CD 


m ©op 

© 0 


ee 

p 


o 

CD 

p 


be 

cs 

• rH 

p 

S' 

o 

rH 

o 

M> 

o 

tH 


o 

be 

c: 


CD rtf 

cn rt 
CD 5 
lx cd 

PXrxX 

X M 

P s 

w p 

g 

** 
o 


X-3 

PI 

CD 


<D 

03 

• *H 

o 

© 

0 0 lx 

.2 C<3 

PP 

""" © 
fx 'V 
oj pi3 

o 

Zfl 

• rH 

lx 

0 


o3 









































































566 


THE AUTOMOBILE, 


AUTOMOBILE CLUB TRIALS, 


Hill-climbing. 

Average Speed in Miles per hour. 


Vehicle. 


Ariel Quadricvcle J 2 

Ariel Tricycle 1 

Ariel Tricycle with Whippet Attacht. 2 
Benz Ideal 2 


Brown Whitney Steam Car 
Century Tandem 
Daimler 

9J 

)) 

>> 

yy 

yy 

yy 


Daimler Parisian 
[De Dion-Bouton 

yy 

Decauville 

Empress’ Tricycle 
Enfield Quadricycle 
Gladiator 

International Victoria 

yy 

Lanchester 
Locomobile Steam 
Marshall 

Mors 

M. C. C. Triumph 

M. M. Co. ’s Iveagh Phaeton 
M. M. Co.’s Phaeton 

yy 

New Orleans 

Napier 

Panhard 




77 

Peugeot 

yy 

Pi chard 

Roots & Venables 
Simm’s Motor Wheel 
Star 

Wolseley 





































































































TABLES GIVING RESULTS OF AUTOMOBILE TRIALS , ETC. 567 


23 APRIL to 12 MAY, 1900. 


1,000 Miles Run.— Average Speed in Miles per hour. 


London 
to Bristol, 

118'5 miles. 

Bristol 

to Cheltenham, 
43 miles. 

Cheltenham 
to Birmingham, 
49*5 miles. 

Birmingham 
to Manchester, 

101*75 miles. 

Manchester 

to Kendal, 

73 '75 miles. 

Kendal 

to Carlisle, 

61 -5 miles. 

Carlisle 

to Edinburgh, 

100 miles. 

Edinburgh 

to Newcastle, 

121*5 miles. 

Newcastle 

to Leeds, 

103 miles. 

Leeds 

to Sheffield, 

74 miles. 

Sheffield 

to Lincoln, 

46*5 miles. 

Lincoln 

to Nottingham, 

35*75 miles. 

Nottingham 

to London, 
122*75 miles. 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

10 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

— 

— 


_ 

— 

— 

— 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

10 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

9-5 

12 

12 

12 

11-5 

10 

11 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

10 

12 

12 

11*5 

12 

12 

11*5 

11-5 

7*5 

10-5 

10-5 

12 

8 

10 

8*5 

8*25 

9 

12 

12 

12 

11 

6*5 

— 

10 

— 

12 

10 

— 

— 

— 

8 

— 

— 

— 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

10 

12 

12 

11 

7 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

10 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

10 

12 

12 

10 

ll-o 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

10 

12 

12 

12 

5 

12 

12 

12 

11-5 

11-5 

12 

12 

5 

9*5 

10 

11*5 

9*5 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

10 

12 

12 

12 

9*5 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

10 

11 

12 

10 

12 

12< 

.12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

8*5 

10 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

10 

12 

9*5 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

10 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

— 

12 

10 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

10 

10 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

— 

12 

12 

10 

— 

12 

12 

12 

12 

11*5 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

10 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

— 

11 

— 

10 

12 

12 

10 

— 

— 

9*5 

12 

12 

— 

12 

12 

12 

11 

12 

12 

10 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

— 

12 

7 

10 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

11-5 

12 

12 

10 

11 

11 

11*5 

— 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

10 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

10 

12 

12 

10 

11 

11 

9*5 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

10 

12 

11 

10*5 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

10 

12 

12 

_ 

12 

12 

— 

11*5 

9 

9 

12 

12 

12 

10 

9*5 

12 

— 

12 

12 

11*5 

7-5 

9 

— 

— 

11-5 

10-5 

9-5 

9 

9 

5 *5 

8’5 

12 

—■ 

7*5 

9-5 

11 

11 

12 

12 

10 

11 

11-5 

5*5 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

10 

12 

12 

11-5 

12 

12 

12 . 

12 

12 

12 

12 

— 

12 

10 

12 

12 

11 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

10 

9-5 

12 

9 

— 

11 

8*5 

11*5 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

10 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

11 

10 

10 

12 

12 

10 

11 

12 

10 

12 

12 

12 


6-5 

12 

12 

— 

— 

10 

— 

12 

— 

12 

12 

—■ 

12 

12 

12 

11-5 

12 

12 

10 

11 

11 

10 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

- 

7*5 

6 

— 

— 

— 

— 

7*5 

12 

12 

11*5 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

10 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

11 

12 

12 

10 

11 

12 

11 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

10 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

11 

12 

— 

— 

— 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

2 

12 

12 

10 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

9 

12 

12 

12 

12 

10 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

_ 

12 

12 

12 

10 

12 

12 

12 

—• 

— 

12 

12 

12 

12 

6-5 

12 

12 

10 

12 

10 

9*5 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

11*5 

12 

12 

10 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

— 

10-5 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

, 

— 

12 

12 

12 

— 

12 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 


— 

12 

12 

12 

12 

_ 

11 

10 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

12 

10 

12 

12 

12 

10-5 

12 

12 






























































568 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 










































































TABLES GIVING RESULTS OF AUTOMOBILE TRIALS, ETC. 


o 

Cl 




a 

CM 

I 

I- 

<02 


Pd 


00 

Cl 


£ 

I—I 

Cm 

H 


CO 

MM 

r-H 


O 

<1 

A-* 


* 


Q) ° ^ 

:^o 

2 £ o 

iJ *-M 

H 0-5 

Cu ^ 


CO 

<x> 


<D 

> 


O 

-±-> 

o 


c 

a 


. - 

CO 

02 

CO 

02 

o 

Cl 

CO 

N 

CO 

GO 

Ol 

o 

r-H 

03 


.— 1 

o 

05 

lO 

■M 

CO 

CO 

CO 


co 


r-H 


7f< 

Tt< 


CO 

»o 

VO 

Af 

CO 

*o 


CO 


Ol 

t—H 


02 

CO 

02 

Ol 

CO 

«0 

to 

»o 

>o 

1^ 

^_l 

CO 

VO 

2-- 03 

05 

02 

Cl 

'-f 

»o 

t'- 

05 

r < 

02 

02 

02 

Ol 

02 

02 

Ol 

Cl 

02 

Ol 

CO 

CO 

CO 

CO 


1—1 

02 

02 

CO 

CO 

■CO 

1—« 

Ol 

02 

02 


Ol 


OCOCO^COCOC^MOCO 

Ol *—H r—4 r-H Ol »“"< »“H 


- W o 


CO co 


l'* t- 


PH 

o 


a 

S-P C7 1 

. o 

73 ci 
r* Sh 

s £ 

'gfi 

eS 

5H 


o g 

CD O 

' & c 

3 o 

PhO 


M 

O 

02 

02 

ci 

> 

© 

MP 

73 

d 

ci 

73 

Sh 

ci 


ci 


=M 
. M 

d o 

p 73 


p 

o 


01 

03 

03 


:2 o 
5 Pm 

• i-H 

® ^ H'l 

dPP ® d 

P St 1 d 

m d ® _ 


rd 

o 

O 


ci 

a 

© 

AH 


b/D 

?-• 

d 

H 


P 3 

- £ ci 

- o d 

0,3 


cr 1 

© 

3 


d 

o 


o 

PP 

■ 

d 

o 


<=» 5 


CD 

ft 


*. s 

<D 


pH MM 


> ° u 

: S3 

i *2, 

l«S 

Ph 


a» 

o 


<4-1 

o 

Pm 

O 

M-P 

o 


H-P 

CO 

o 

O 




?s 


*^73 §5 

*“* —* ci r—-« 

° d 

H 


g g 

12 f 

© d 

PP 'A 


"C d 

go 

A 73 

I§ 

Ph o 


S-. 

<D 


m '3 

Q <h 
feH ^ 


rO 'rP 

33 o 

Pm o 


. 73 

>v M 
1 —I ci 

p^g 

r£ © 
MH 


O 

o 

O S 
d ^ d 

§ ® S 

Sfs o t. o 

s. 

<*5 


o 

Ol 


<D 


rn 


5 


rn 


d 

, <X> 

lr 2 

ci 


«Si 


© ^ Pd 

- I § 

ci '© or 3 
j q « ® « O 

O m ^ Opq o 


© 


vO 


MMiCOWOCO^COlM 


f- o 
(M (M 


OMH 
Ol CO 


© N N M © © OO © 


®©©OH(NM(MM^©©ffl© 

h h rH ci ®| o\ Ol Ol Ol Ol Ot (M 02 ro 


vO CO 


Cl ©1 
*—< 02 


OOCOOCGOGOOO'MOOOC'COCOCOOC'O 
02 Ol 02 0 2 02 02 02 02 Ol 02 02 02 02 CO 


02 


CO >o CO o o 
02 CO 02 02 r—I 


M< 

02 


02 02 


M 

O 

m 

32 

ci 

> 

© 

CO 

31 

-A C3 


& 

rG 


oo 

^M 

: o 

t-i 

& 


Sh 

O 

r-« 

O 

rM 

o 



r-> 

o 


02 

m 

GO 



t/2 


02 

ai 

CO 



GO 

3 « 

ci 

C3 

pd 



cS 

> 

© 

1-5 

r> 

05 

mP 

^MP 

00 

-O 


> 

<D 

S dHrd 

'S.2.3 

© O Sh 

d 

m 

-3 73 

- ^ ^ T © fl 

S * 

- ~ o d 

^ v O 
- o 

rM 

© 

Mors 

73 

d 

ci 

M PM ^3 

3 ©12 
^ 3« 

73 

73 


MH 

r=2 


73 

o •'m ® 

Sh 

ci 

rd 

Sh 

ci 

rd 

rH 

03 

rd 


rH 

ci 

rd 

02 

d 

d 

d 



d 


wVJ 

ci 

d 



ci 


A 

r-H 

Pm 

dn 



Pm 



o 

m 

m 

C3 

> 

CD 

A 

73 

d 

ci 

73 

M 

ci 

rd 

c 

ci 

Ph 


<*>.2 

^ d 

M 


O 

VO 

o 


o 

fM 


5J3 

T 1 M 

i^v cD 

r~1 » 

ao 
g3 

fH 

PP 


3 W 

Pk ° 


d 

S-d 

H <7> 

M 

m r 1 
ci 7 

^ J 

• o 


H-O 

X „ 
l— 1 


73 

H-i © *7 <T) M- 

2 'S :2 ^.2 2m d 

0 -S=KW^or op, n 5 


d 

© 
73 

ps 

© 


o 

S3 d *©> 

© .d «d 

^ <^-4 Ao 

d r r? o r> 

>H 7 O ^ ^ 

c ^ -3 A 


569 


After deduction of S hours allowed for neutralised portions of route in towns, etc. 




































Number of Vehicle. 


570 


THE AUTOMOBILE . 


HEAVY VEHICLE HILL-CLIMBING TESTS 


<v 

jo 

> 


O 

.O 




A 1 

A 2 

B 1 

C 1 

D 1 

• 

D 2 
D 3 
D 4 
D 5 


G 

o 

r: 

O 


to 

3 


j Ll 'ght 
| Laden 
Light 
Laden 
j Light 
I Laden 
( Light 
Laden 
f Light 
( Laden 
( Light 
\ Laden 
( Light 
( Laden 
( Light 
( Laden 
/ Light 
( Laden 


1 

Total Moving Weight. 

(T) 

Useful Load. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

2-10 

_ 

3-63 

1-53 

2*12 


3-65 

1-53 

3-77 

_ 

8-41 

4-76 

7-65 

_ 

14-02 

6 • 7 7 

4-63 

_ 

8-75 

3-75 

4*60 

_ 

9-46 

4*91 

4-75 

— 

9-25 

4*75 

4 • 7 

_ 

9-78 

4-86 

4-68 


10-4 

5*51 


.2 

a 


ct "C 

r Jl 

O 


49-7 
49-7 
19-6 
21-7 
17-7 
17-2 
32 
20 
] 3 


-c 


e <d 
o —• 

P o 

a oT 

53 

to 

'3 


Tons. 

1*15 

1*18 

2-25 

5-38 

2-9 

2- 95 

3- 19 
3-02 
2*47 


D 


’00 

•56 

•6 

*7 

*63 

•64 

•67 

•64 

•53 


Names of Constructors are given on p. 571 . 


Constructors. 

Total Moving Weight 
in tons. 

Tare in tolls. 

I JS 
-3 

3 

' c 

A 

cz 

<D 

Weight of Fuel and 
Water in tons. 

Total Miles Run. 

ce 

o 

Consumption per 
ton-mile of load. 

Cost per ton 
mile of load. 

Average Speed 
per liou 

Petroleum in 
gallons. 

Coal in 
pounds. 

Water in 
gallons. 

Motive 

power. 

Attendants. 

( Steam Carriage i 







--—- 



< and Wagon Co. 1 

7-465 

2-996 

3-73 

*561 





. * 

1 (Thomycroft). j 






2-38 

1-88 

•27 

•44 

5 f 

11*602 

3-904 


•81 9 






T. Coulthard & Co. 

4-998 

2-238 

2-32 

•259 

*- 1 - 

1-87 

1-33 

*22 

•36 

( Lancashire ) 





- - - 

— 

— 



j Steam Motor Co. > 

7-753 

2-85 

4 -44 

•276 






(Leyland). ) 





- -121 

— 

•91 

*•62 

•38 

t Clarkson and ) 










{ Capel Syndicate j’ 

6’765 

2-996 

3-35 

•335 — 

•216 


•64 

*1-09 

•52 

Bayleys ... 

7*282 

2-966 

3-67 

'447 


Coke. 








-1 


1*84 

1-27 

•13 

•65 


In 189S kerosene was 4U. per gallon, but in 1 59!1 it WM M . per ga] , 0]] ; 

















































TABLES GIVING RESULTS OF AUTOMOBILE TRIALS, ETC. 571 
LIVERPOOL, 3-7 JUNE, 1901. 


Speed of Ascent in miles per hour. Speed of Descent in Control on Declivity et 

miles per hour. 1 in 9 (set pavement). 


1 in IS. 
Macadam 
(106 yards 
from rest). 

1 in 9J. 
Sets 

(50 yards). 

1 in 13L 
Macadam 
(90 yards). 

1 in 11. 
Cobbles 
(S7 yards). 

1 in 11. 
Cobbles 
(S7 yards 
from rest). 

1 in 13$. 
Macadam 
(93 yards). 

Speed per 
hour imme¬ 
diately 
before 
Signal. 

Distance 
run before 
coming to 
rest. 

4*31 

3-47 

3*8 

3*26 

4*37 

5*82 

Miles. 

5*37 

Feet. 

16*5 

2*96 

2-16 

3*94 

3*99 

4*18 

6*12 

2*92 

1 

4-84 

4*0 5 

4*2 

3*55 

6*8 

5*6 

9*3 

51*1 

3-6 

2‘54 

2*67 

* 1*92 

4*86 

5*2 

5*68 

26*4 

3-14 

2-64 

4*01 

3*17 

3*97 

4*44 

5*34 

194 

3-01 

2*55 

2*95 

2*99 

t 3*26 

4*13 

3-28 

15*5 

3-52 

3*99 

4*92 

2*81 

2*72 

3*72 

3*51 

8*6 

t 3*13 

2*56 

3*22 

2*56 

4*03 

3*43 

3*14 

13*6 

3*28 

3*47 

4*25 

3*9 

3*26 

4*8 

4*24 

14*9 

2*97 

2*37 

3*46 

3*13 

3*96 

4*65 

3 39 

8*3 

3-62 

3*78 

3*6 

* *57 

2*97 

2*65 

3*58 

6*5 

2-82 

2*73 

3*54 

3*14 

3*01 

4*1 

4*21 

15*4 

3*89 

3*17 

5*35 

3*68 

3*81 

3*58 

2*78 

11*2 

2*91 

2*7 

3*38 

2*71 

3*54 

3*58 

2*65 

14*9 

3*29 

3*96 

4‘12 

3*4 

3*82 

3*44 

5*18 

15*5 

2-29 

2*36 

3‘37 

3*25 

4*51 

4*72 

5*45 

13*7 

2*55 

3*36 

4‘31 

* *61 

4*21 

4*9 

5*33 

25*1 

1-72 

1-79 

2‘74 

* 1*67 

3*8 

3*43 

3*3 

8*4 


+ Wheels skidded and slipped, t Lost time in starting. Names of construct- rs are given in foil wing ta' *Ie. 


HEAVY VEHICLE TRIALS: LIVERPOOL. 3-7 JUNE, 1901. 






— 

X 






O 






Fuel Consnmp- 

Water Con- 

£ 1 

-r 



X 

9 

X 

SZ -J 

tion. 

sumption, e. 

— - 

>* 

Constructors. 

— 



Z, -H 



Per 

gross 

ton- 

Per 

ton- 
mile of 


o 

tZZ 

X 

-JS 


X ^ 

£c 

Per 

gross 

ton- 

Per ton- 
mile of 
lead. 

^ T 

z 



£ 

-I 

Z} 

> 

miie. 

mile. 

load. 

X 7- 






< 








Tons. 




Galls. 

Galls. 

Galls. 

Galls. 

d. 

A 1 

G-. F. Milnes & Co. 

1*848 

663*2 

309 2 

7*11 

a 030 

*064 

— 

— 

*767 

A 2 


1*S88 

671*5 

316*2 

7*33 

a 026 

*055 

— 

— 

*655 


Lancashire ) 





lb. 

lb. 


1*36 

*219 

B 1 

•j Steam Motor Co. / 
(Leyland). \ 

4*813 

1,443*6 

805 2 

6*04 

b 1 41 

2*52 

* i i 



C 1 

( Thornycroft i 

Steam Wagon 
t Co. ) 

T. Conlthard & Co. 

6*331 

2,340*2 

1056 

6*01 

b 1-38 

3*06 

*83 

1*83 

*268 

D 1 

4*423 

1,529*9 

736 9 

6 23 

b 1-59 

3*31 

*91 

1*9 

•2S9 

D 2 

4*481 

1,370*3 

666-3 

5 *85 

b 1-84 

3*78 

1*12 

2*29 

*331 

I) 3 

1 Mann Patent I 

3*612 

1,410*6 

601-8 

5*23 

b 1 76 

4*12 

1*09 

2*52 

*361 

D 4 

' Steam Cart and - 
( Wagon Co. J 

4*469 

1,558*7 

744 5 

7*11 

b 1-82 

3*81 

1*06 

2*22 

*333 


a. Petrol Spirit; b, Coke at 15s. per ton ; c. Water at Is. per 1,000 ga.Ions. 
































572 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


(535 MILES) 2 

-6 SEPTJ 



Total 

Persons 

Horse 

Marks 

Oni'riprt 

Power c 

)f obtained. 


Motor. 

(Maximum 



1500.) 

4 

7-5 

1484 

4 

5 

1500 

6 

8 

- 

4 

7 

, 

4 

7"5 

— 

2 

6 

_ 

4 

10 

___ 

4 

6 

_ 

4 

16 

1499 

4 

12 

1245 

2 

5 

_____ 

2 

5 

_ 

6 

6 

1440 

4 

6 5 

_ 

4 

6-5 

_ _ 

4 

12 

1457 

4 

13 

_ 

4 

18 

— 

O 

u 

45 

1498 

2 

6 

__ 

6 

6 

_____ 

2 

5 

__ 

4 

8 

_ 

4 

10 

_ 

2 

5 

1395 

2 

5 

1369 

4 

5 

1497 

4 

6 

1492 

6 

7 

_ 

oad 1 ton 

7 


4 

6 

_ 

4 

10 

1451 

4 

10 

__ 

4 

24 

__ 

4 

10-5 

1500 

4 

7 

1487 

4 

7 

1475 

4 

9 

_ 

4 

9 


3 

20 


4 

5 


3 

5 


2 

4-5 


4 

6 


3 

5 


4 

6 


4 

6 


2 

4-5 

1350 

2 

4-5 


6 

14 


4 

5 


4 

10 


2 

5 

1491 

4 

10 

—- 


Vehicle. 


Albion 

Argyll 

Arrol Johnston 


99 

Bardon 

B. and F. Electrical 
C. P. C. Car 

Century Tandem 
Clarkson & Capel Steam 
Daimler 

Daimler Light Car 

9 9 

Daimler 


De Dion-Bouton 
Decauville 

Hallamshire Touring 
Humber 

99 

Lanchester 
Locomobile Steam 

51. M. Co.’s Voiturette 
5L M. Co.’s Light Car 
M. M. Co.’s Car 
51. M. Co.’s Goods Van 
5Iors 

Napier 

99 
9 9 

New Orleans 

99 

Pan hard & Levassor 

>5 

Parr 
Progress 
Renault 
Royal Enfield 
Serpollet Steam 
Star 

99 

Stirling Parisian 

9 9 

Teras or Gobron-Brillie 
Wilson & Pilcher 
5Volseley 


Weight 

without 

Passengers. 


Cwt. qrs. 
18 2 
10 0 
24 0 

23 0 

21 1 
15 0 

21 2 
42 0 

22 2 
21 0 


6 

9 

23 


1 

2 

3 


13 0 
13 3 
27 0 
29 0 
31 0 


8 

8 


3 

1 


13 0 

12 1 
13 0 

17 0 
10 2 
10 2 

10 3 

18 1 

15 0 

22 0 

11 2 

19 1 

31 1 

22 0 
10 3 


10 

15 

15 

23 

17 


3 

3 

2 

2 

2 


8 0 
7 3 
11 0 


14 

11 


1 

3 


12 0 
8 2 
8 2 
18 1 
18 1 
19 0 
14 2 
19 0 


Hi^l-climbs. 


Lennox- 
town. 
Speed per 
hour. 

Miles. 

6 31 
6-92 


3T4 

12-0 

3-3 


5-48 


9-35 


10-69 

10-14 


12 

12 

6-72 

705 

2-95 

7-55 


9-47 

9-73 

734 


7-62 


i ‘o 
10-6 

8-09 


Gleneagles 
Speed per 
hour. 

Miles. 

9-52 


5-42 7-1 


12-0 

11-2 


12-0 

12-0 

12-0 


12 

12 

11-06 

9-01 


10-59 


120 

11-65 

12 


10-99 


8-36 

12-0 

10-59 


Marks for 
Two 
Hill- 
climbs. 


185 

262 


125 


159 

83 


10-53 — 

142 


113 


300 

127 


276 

281 

302 

183 


138 

349 

241 


149 


171 

147 

150 

































































573 


CHAPTER XXII. 

APPLICATIONS, EFFICIENCY, AND FURTHER PROGRESS OF THE AUTO¬ 
MOBILE. 

Following after the instructive records just given, this chapter 
may well be concerned with a review of the special applications of 
the three agents of mechanical road locomotion—steam, petrol, 
and electricity. 

Steam cars, as has been said, are more rapid than, but not yet 
as cheap as, horses for conveyance of ordinary goods, though they 
can provide regular passenger services on good roads with greater 
comfort and much more quickly than horses, and still leave a 
certain profit for the contractors; in fact, such services have been 
established. For instance, a de Dion-Bouton car has run for some 
considerable time at the gates of Paris from St. Germain to 
Ecquevilly, and there are de Dion-Bouton car services in Spain 
between Pampelune and Estella, Figueras and Rosas. Scotte cars 
are beginning to get common outside France, and for some years 
have assured regular traffic between Courbevoie and Colombes- 
Scotte trains run from Yintimille to Yievola, a journey of six hours, 
with 43 km. (26V miles) of rising gradient. They gave rise in 
several districts to numerous experiments, some of which were long 
enough to seem conclusive, especially those made in the Meuse 
department. The recent development and the remarkable progress of 
heavy steam cars in England are recorded in Chapter XVII., whilst 
the tables in Chapter XX. show excellent performances of these 
types of cars. Motor traction is well adapted for carrying supplies 
to forts, etc., and for other heavy war material. In Brussels the 
Lifu omnibus has been found to ascend in one-third less time 
than a horse-drawn omnibus the steepest gradients there (9 per cent.). 
Ordinary light steam cars have not made so much headway, but still 
the development during the past two or three years is very promising. 

The petrol tricycle, made accessible by its comparatively low price 
is by far the most commonly employed automobile if bicycles are 


574 


the AUTOMOBILE. 


ignoied , and it is both serviceable and durable. The petrol car is the 
est ot the three types for use as a touring car; it enables very Ion.- 
journeys to be made at a speed of from 20 km. to 35 km. (12 4 miles to 

of vh', 7 iC f • 0Ur ’ ail , cl tllere are compulsory stoppages theyusuallyare 

• . 1 C ln ' atl01 b and their number, excepting those for repairing tyres, 

• GI ' V sma ' A heady the petrol car is employed on a large scale and 
its progress has been and will be very rapid. The voiturette is beginning 
to render good service. It must be admitted that the car of ordinary 
dimensions is expensive in price, repairs, and consumption, and con 
sequenJy remains too much in the hands of rich persons. Numerous 

300 k3 C f6f0 1M t f ° r “ V6hiC,e With tW0 P laces > ^ghing hardly 

300 kg. (660 1b.) empty, running from 20 km. to 25 km. (124 miles 

0- ° ° miles) pe *'. ll0ur > and costin g only £120. Unfortunately, low 
puces aie more difhcult m such a case than in that of a We car 

halfU , tl tll6 l US f f I 1 ° ad 1 bear ’ ng SUch a big P ro Portion (nearly one- 
in the laigerti ’ ”** * * ° ften ^ 0M - third or a ^-ter 

By dispensing with water-cooling an endeavour has been made 
to simplify the structure of the car. Thus in the Decauville voiturette 
which made its appearance at the Tuileries in June, 1898, the motor 
is only air-cooled. Since that time has appeared the Panhard 
voiturette, whose only exhaust valve is cooled by a current ofwaTer 
which circulates by gravitation. De Dion-Bouton go further and cool 
all the motor cylinder by water kept in motion by'a pump and they 

4 ar h e .p n moS ne U1 “ g that Ule air d06S 110t efficiently cool I 

As for omitting the reversing gear this is not possible in France after 

SoT) reg Tb at T the WGight ° f tlM 6mpt y Car exoeeds 25d kg 

5o0 lb.). Though petrol motors did not appear to be suitable for 
heavy goods vehicles the Milnes’ petrol lurry has raised great hoi of 
what may yet be effected; at any rate, they can be employed fo r 
average weight vehicles of this kind. Twelve de Dietrich dly 1 
employed in some French railway works, and it is believed that 80 
de Dietnch goods vehicles are in use in connection with the Sene-al 
Niger Railway. Petrol spirit, like steam, seems destined to render Seat 
ices in the Colonies. France is almost alone in her extensive 
use of the petrol car. In Germany, the country of Daimler and of 
Benz, it is relatively little employed, though at the Tuileries in 1898 
was a Daimler dray, one of a set of ten ordered by the Cannstadt 


APPLICATIONS, EFFICIENCY , AND PROGRESS. 


575 


Works for tlie French Souclan. In England the petrol car is 
coining into use for goods delivery work, but the heavier vehicles 
are steam-driven. 

Electric cars have a great future, but some initial difficulty has to 
be overcome, especially as regards electric cabs for public service; but 
the difficulties are much less in the case of livery or private carriages, 
which afford the greatest scope for the development of the electric car. 
In any case, its future seems assured. According as accumulators are 
made lighter, more durable, and their charging easier, the electric car 
will find its field of action greatly increased, for already it is the 
cleanest and most comfortable system of road locomotion. The wide 
and rapid growth of electrical applications in America seems to point 
to that country as having the greatest scope for the development of 
the electric automobile. As an instance of what an electric automobile 
is capable of, it may be said that the Comte de Chasseloup-Laubat 
travelled from Paris to Rouen, a distance of 128 km. (79*5 miles), 
the journey taking 7 hrs. 15 mins. During the journey the 
accumulators were not touched, and he returned the same day to Paris 
in 7 hrs. 32 mins, after recharging them at Rouen. This car was not 
built for long journeys, but rather for average ones at full speed ; it 
was, in fact, the Jeantaud car with which de Chasseloup-Laubat had 
made a kilometre record at Achenes. The car weighed 2,250 kg. (4,950 
lb.) with its two passengers and 80 Fulrnen type B 17 elements. In 
America a car weighing 1,132 kg. (2,490*4 lb.) with its two passengers 
and 448 kg. (985*6 lb.) of accumulators, has run 161 km. (100 miles) 
without recharging, in 7 hrs. 45 mins.—that is, at the rate per hour 
of 21 km. (13 miles). 

Amongst the improvements yet to be made in automobiles is 
increased efficiency, for if the automobile is to find its way into more 
general practice, and more especially commercial quarters, its con¬ 
sumption must be lessened. To demonstrate this, it will be useful to 
begin by theoretically calculating what the] efficiency may be for each 
of the three agents commonly employed. 

The thermal efficiency of a steam motor is the ratio of the number 
of units of heat really used on the piston to the number of 
units represented by the fuel burnt. This thermal efficiency is itself 
the product of two factors. One factor is the efficiency of the boiler, 
this being the ratio of the number of heat units employed to vaporise 
the water to those which existed in the fuel employed; this ratio is 


576 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


from 70 to 80 per cent., 30, or at least 20, per cent, of the units being 
lost, either with the particles which pass through the fine grate 
without being perfectly consumed, or with the smoke which carries 
away some of the heat. The second factor is the internal efficiency 
of the motor ; this is the ratio of the work actually gathered by the 
piston to that amount of work theoretically equivalent to the heat 
employed to produce the steam; this ratio is from 15 to 20 per cent., 
85, or at least 80, per cent, of the heat from the water, therefore, being 
wasted, either because it remains latent and is not transformed into 
work, or because pressure is not usefully exerted on the piston. 

The organic efficiency of the motor is the ratio of the work 
gathered by the shaft to that received by the piston ; also this is 
called indicated work, because it is that recorded by pressure gauges; 
this ratio is equal to 70 or 80 per cent., 30, or at least 20, per cent, of 
the work gathered by the piston thus being wasted by the connecting 
rods and cranks that unite piston and shaft. Therefore, to obtain the 
efficiency of the motor—that is, the ratio of work gathered on the 
shaft to the work represented by the heat units of the fuel employed 

the product of the three elementary efficiencies just defined must 
be found. Taking for each of these the average of the values above 
given, the average efficiency proves to be (0-750 x 0-175 x 0 750) = 
nearly 01—that is, 10 per cent. Dwelshauvers-Dery estimates that 
an efficiency of 15 to 16 per cent, can never be exceeded by a steam- 
engine, whatever may be the improvements attempted in the fire-box 
boiler, motor, and transmission gear to shaft. In any case, the 
greatest efficiency hitherto attained is 13 per cent., which corresponds 
to a consumption of 650 g. (22*9 oz.) of coal burnt in the fire-box per 
effective horse-power hour collected on the motor shaft. Consumption 
has been reduced thus only with very powerful engines furnished with 
all the latest improvements, such as superheated steam multiple 
expansion, energetic condensation. With engines of slight power and 
designedly simplified, like those of automobiles, so small a consump¬ 
tion cannot be reckoned on. Adopting T5 kg. (3-3 lb) ;ls the 
consumption per effective horse-power-hour (this is realised* in de 
Dion-Bouton motors), the efficiency of an automobile motor is 
/0T3 x 0"650\ A ^„ 

\ 1-500 ) ~ —that is, roughly, 5 per cent. 

The efficiency of the car itself is found by multiplying the 
available work on the motor shaft by the transmission efficiency, this 



APPLICATIONS, EFFICIENCY, AND PROGRESS. 


577 

giving the work available at the wheel tyre. The efficiency of the 
petrol car transmissions tested at Chicago was not more than 50 per 
cent. De Witz states that it varies from 40 to 75 per cent., the 
average being 50 per cent. With steam vehicles, which have simple 
transmission gear, it may be estimated at 60 per cent., and perhaps 70 
per cent, if, as is sometimes admitted, the absence of an intermediary 
shaft decreases the loss in transmission by 10 per cent. Taking the 
highest figures, the final efficiency of steam—that is, the ratio 
between the energy utilised at the tyre and the potential energy of 
combustion—is only 392 per cent. This is really miserable. 

In dealing more in detail with the efficiency of petrol cars, there is 
no need to repeat much of what already has been said in dealing with 
steam. In the two elementary factors of the thermal efficiency the 
boiler efficiency has to be replaced by that of the combustion, which 
is simply the ratio of the number of calories disengaged by the 
explosion of the detonating mixture to the calories represented by 
the fuel. It may be said at once that 20 per cent, can be considered 
the heat efficiency of the petrol. This is greater than in the steam- 
engine, and is partly due to the fact that combustion of petrol takes 
place in the cylinder itself, whereas the coal is burnt in a fire-box 
under very unsatisfactory conditions. Another point is that the 
temperature attained by the gases produced by the combustion is 
much greater than that of steam (1,500° to 1,800° C., instead of 
200° C. (2,732° to 3,272°, instead of 392° F.), and the Carnot theorem 
demonstrates that the economic efficiency of the motor increases with 
this temperature. However, automobile petrol motors do not realise an 
efficiency of 20 per cent. A Daimler motor of 2 to 4 h.p. gave Prof. 
Hartmann a thermal efficiency of 11 per cent, and an organic 
efficiency of 97 per cent. These figures about agree with those 
deduced from the Chicago trials. Basing himself upon them, R. 
Soreau fixes the average consumption of petrol spirit at 0 870 kg.— 
that is, 125 1. (30 - 6 oz., or 2 2 pints) per horse-power hour available on 
the motor shaft, which is equivalent to a thermal efficiency of from 
9 to 10 per cent, and an organic efficiency of 7 3. Since the date of 
these experiments (Nov., 1895) the construction of petrol motors has 
much improved, and their thermal efficiency attains, pretty regularly, 
16 per cent., this corresponding to an organic efficiency of about 13 per 
cent., and a consumption of about 500 g., or 07 1. (IT lb., or 123 ps.), 
per effective horse-power hour on the motor shaft. Hospitalier admits 
LL 


578 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


0 5 1. ('88 pt.), but probably does not reckon the consumption of the 
burners which heat the incandescent tubes. At the 1898 French 
heavy vehicle trials the burners of the 8 h.p. Panhard delivery car 
consumed 0'695 1. (1*2 pts.) of petrol spirit during a two-hours’ run, 
the car being empty; the burners of the de Dietrich 9 h.p. brake 
consumed, at the same trials, and during the same period of time, 
0'5 1. ('88 pt.) of petrol spirit. The builders of the Panhard car in 
question estimated the consumption at 0'630 1. (IT pt.), or 0-450 kg. 
( 99 lb.), of petrol spirit per effective horse-power hour. 

Invention of the Diesel motor has greatly increased the efficiency 
of internal combustion motors. Diesel maintains that theoretically 
the consumption should fall to 112 g. (3*95 oz.) per indicated horse¬ 
power hour, which would correspond to a thermal efficiency of 75 per 
cent. In any case, it has been shown that the 20 h.p. Diesel motor has 
given 34 to 35 per cent, in full charge, 38 to 40 per cent, half charge 
as thermal efficiency, and 75 and 59 per cent, as mechanical efficiency, 
which brings the total for effective efficiency to 25 per cent 
in full charge and 22 per cent, half charge. The corresponding con¬ 
sumption of petrol spirit is 240 g. (8*46 oz.) per h.p. hour on the shaft 
for full charge and 277 g. (9*76 oz.) for half charge. Hitherto the best 
stationary petrol engines have consumed from 300 g to 400 «• 
(10-58 oz. to 141 oz.). Thus the desirability of the adoption of the 
Diesel motor for cars is evident. Petreano obtained the effective 
horse-power hour with a 4 h.p. motor for a consumption of 250 s. 
(8*81 oz.) of petrol spirit, density 0'850. 

For the efficiency at the tyres of the road wheels the total 

efficiency of the motor (taken as 13 per cent.) must be multiplied bv 

that of the transmission, namely, 50 per cent. Therefore, not more 

than 6 or 7 per cent, of the energy of the petrol spirit is actually 

turned to account; this is not much better than with steam, and 

the prices of the two fuels being considered, steam usually is cheaper 
than petrol spirit. 1 

With regard to electric automobiles, it is assumed that the 
electricity is generated m works, as is usually the case, provided with 
improved steam engines whose efficiency can be taken as 10 per cent 
The efficiency of the dynamo, that is, the ratio of the mechanical 
work supplied to it to the electric energy it produces, should be 
7o per cent, at least, 80 per cent, according to Hospitaller The 
efficiency of the accumulators cannot be taken as more than 75 per 


APPLICATIONS , EFFICIENCY, AND PROGRESS. 


579 


t 


cent., and that of the electric motor which they run is at least 75 per 
cent.; according to Hospitalier the electric motor efficiency is from 
80 to 88 per cent., the average being 84 per cent. The efficiency of 
the transmission gear from the electric motor to the wheels according 
to the Chicago trials may be estimated at 70 per cent., though 
Hospitalier says 90 per cent. The final efficiency (ratio of energy at 
the wheel tyres to that of the coal burnt in the fire box of the steam 
engine driving the generating dynamos at the charging works) is 39 
per cent, at the lowest and 45 per cent, according to Hospitalier. 
This efficiency occupies a place between steam and petrol. However, 
electricity makes it possible to employ water power, a natural power 
which costs hardly anything, instead of costly coal. It may be 
remarked that the cost of current constitutes only a small item in 
the cost of electric locomotion. 

The efficiencies just worked out are deplorable, but yet these are 
scarcely exceeded in practice and are even rarely attained. From an 
experiment which lasted eight months and dealt with a distance of 
7,700 km. (4,784'6 miles), Michelin considered that for a de Dion- 
Bouton steam brake with six places, weighing 2,050 kg. (4,510 lb.) 
when loaded ready for the road, the average speed per hour being 
10 km. (9'9 miles), the kilometric consumption might be fixed at'55d. 
worth of coke; at £1 8s. per ton this means 175 kg. (3’85 lb.), 
equivalent to 13,125 calories (3,310 B.H.U.) and 5,578,125 kgm. (nearly 
40,350,000 ft.-lb.). Now according to the tables of Julien and Borame 
(mentioned on p. 258) the useful effort exerted tangentially at the 
tyre on a level at an hourly speed of 16 km. (9'9 miles) is 90 kg- 
(198 lb.) for a car of 2,500 kg. (5,500 lb.). Thus the number of kgm. 
(7 - 23 ft.-lb.) expended per km. (‘62 mile) is 90,000 and the efficiency at 


90,000 


the tyre ~ = 0016, that is T6 per cent. That is on the level; 


5,750,125 


considering the road to have a continuous rising gradient of 4 per 
cent., in this case the tangential effort would be 190 kg. (418 lb.) 
instead of the 90 kg. on the level. The efficiency then would be 
twice as great, namely, 0032, or 32 per cent., but this is less than the 
value calculated. It need not be remarked that the brake has not 
always to run under full charge, and that it has not by any means 
to travel along a road with an average gradient of 4 in 100. 

Petrol gives better results. A catalogue dated April 15th, 1898^ 
published by the Peugeot firm, gives 0 57d. to 0’855d. as the cost of 
L L 2 



580 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


running a car with a 4 to 6 h.p. for a kilometre. Reckoning petrol 
spirit at 3<8d. per 1. of 700 g. (I7*3d. per gall, or 2’46d. per lb.) the 
0'855d. given by the Peugeot firm corresponds to 157 g. (5*5 . oz.), 
which, admitting a power of 11,000 calories, represents 0157 x 11,000 
— 1,727 calories and (1,727 x 425) 733,975 kgm. (about 5,309,000 ft.-lb.). 
Suppose that the 6 h.p. car weighs one ton with passengers and runs 
30 km. (18h4 miles) per hour on a level; the corresponding tangential 
effort is 51 kg. (112*2 lb.); therefore the work expended is 51,000 kgm. 

(nearly 369,000 ft.-lb.) per km. (*62 mile), and the efficiency _ V^r T~ 

• Tii i 733,975 

is a little less than 7 per cent. 

The Panhard delivery car that took part in the Versailles 1898 
heavy vehicle trials had an 8 h.p. motor, and weighed 3 tons with a 
useful load of 1 ton. Its makers asserted that the consumption 
was 5 1. (Id gal.) of petrol spirit at an hourly speed of from 
10 km. to 12 km. (6*2 miles to 7*4 miles); that is at the rate per 

km. of QA -41 1., weighing at a density of *700 about 300 g. 

( 72 pint, weighing 10*5 oz.). This amount per kilometre is equiva¬ 
lent to (0 3 x 11,000) = 3,300 calories or (3,300 x 425) 1,402 500 k^m 
..(about 10,145,000 ft.-lb.). With a car of 3 tons, the tangential effort 
to be delivered at the tyres to give the hourly linear speed of 12 km. 
(7 4 miles) on a level road is, in round figures, 110 kg. (242 lb.); this 
is equivalent per km. to 110,000 useful kgm. (nearly 796,000 ft.-lb.), 

the efficiency being = 0 077, that is 77 per cent. 

A similar calculation to the above would show that the efficiency 
amounts to 0 08 (8 per cent.) for the de Dietrich 9 h.p. brake which took 
part m the same competition, and which weighed 3,060 ko*. (6 732 lb ) 

Jo°o oi !*f “ mpti0n Was 1 1 ^' 76 PO of petrol spirit (density 
00 to ,10) for 2-5 km. (1-55 miles) at a rate of 16 km. (9'9 miles) per 

lour on a level. It seems, then, that the figures to which calculation 

has led correspond fairly well with those obtained in practice. 

. niongst the consumptions given by makers several show greater 

accredited th ° S6 11616 mentioned ’ but they cannot be fully 

The de Dion-Bouton brake, a light steam vehicle with six places 

durkiTS r £ 576) .’ SU l died bj Miohelin du ™g eight months, 

° 101 ' 6 car ran km- (4,785 miles) at an average 




581 


APPLICATIONS, EFFICIENCY, AND 


PROGRESS. 


speed of 1(3 km. (9'9 miles), the consumption per km bein<* as 
followsr n s 


Coke. 

Lubricating oil for motor... 
Other lubricating oil 
Grease . 


d. 

'585 

'006 

'328 

'005 


'924 


The cost for repairs was £2 per month, that is '475d. per km., the total 
cost per km. thus being 1’399(1. These figures bring the cost of the 
kilometre ton to '559(1. for the car with six passengers. 

For petrol, Baudry de Saunier gives an expenditure of *237d. 
worth of petrol spirit and lubricant per km., travelling with a 1} h.p. 
de Dion-Bouton tricycle, hauling a voiturette and weighing 333 kg. 
(732h lb.) with two passengers and luggage, over the 250 km. (550 
miles) which separate Paris from Lion-sur-Mer, at an average hourly 
speed of 25 km. (155 miles). At the rate of 3*8d. per 1. (I7'3d. per 
gallon) of petrol spirit, this is a little more than '05 1. (-08 pt.) per km. 
Dr. Calbet’s 4 h.p. Panhard, weighing 680 kg. (1,496 lb.) ready for the 
road, and 890 kg. (1,958 lb.) with two passengers and portmanteau of 
70 kg. (1541b.), consumed on a journey of 1,760 km. (1,093b miles), 
at an average hourly speed of 19,645 km. (12 2 miles), 254 1. (55*9 
gallons) of petrol spirit, that is 0144 1. ( 253 pint) per km. From an 
experiment comprising 12,000 km. (7,457 miles) travelled in thirty- 
two months, Dr. Cal bet deduced that the cost of maintenance was 
made up as follows :— 

Per km. Per mile. 


Petrol spirit . 

d. 

•620 ... 

d. 

... 1-033 

Oil and grease ... 

•047 ... 

•078 

Pneumatic tyres 

•291 

*485 

Repairs, etc. 

... 1-567 ... 

... 2*611 

Reimbursement... 

1115 

... 1-858 

Coach-house and tax ... 

•356 

... *593 

Servant ... 

1-450 ... 

... 2-416 


Total 


5*446d. per km 


or 9*074d. per mile. 


This almost exactly is the kiloinetric cost estimated for the 
Peugeot coupe by the Commission of the Cab Trials of 1898. The 
Peugeot firm estimates at *57d. to -85d. the kilometric cost for the 
4 to 7 h.p. motor, and - 47d. for all repairs, the life of the pneumatic 















582 


THE AUTOMOBILE. 


tyres being reckoned from 6,000 km. to 8,000 km. (8,700 miles to 
5,000 miles). 

Concluding remarks can have for their subject the progress to be 
aimed at. Of the first importance is increased efficiency, and in 
obtaining this in the petrol car, that is to say, in assuring better 
employment of the carburetted mixture, one of its greatest incon¬ 
veniences—the unpleasant odour—will be prevented to a large extent. 
In this respect the improvement of the motor is allied closely with 
that of the carburetter, which should be made a subject of study, 
particularly with regard to its better adaptation to each type of motor. 
The respective influence of each quality of petrol spirit is another 
point claiming attention. Without abandoning the petrol motor, 
there must be an endeavour to give it the elasticity of which it is 
destitute. The want of elasticity in a petrol motor is due to the 
two-fold fact that the same amount of carburetted mixture is 
admitted at each suction stroke, the volume of the cylinder being con¬ 
stant, and the proportion of this mixture can hardly vary because the 
piopoitions of the mixture and the degrees of its compression which 
ensuie efficiency are very limited. In the Marmonnier motor the 
cylindei 'volume, and consequently the amount of mixture admitted, 
may be varied without altering the relative proportions of the fresh 
gases and the burnt gases, or the degree of compression to which 
they are subjected; but the mechanism is very complicated. That 
invented by Herisson is much simpler, and can be adapted to existing 
motors. It varies the time of ignition both with tube and electric 
spark. At the usually closed end of the ignition tube a small valve 
opens outwards at a certain moment to a degree regulated at will, and 
some of the burnt gases escape through it at the proper time* the 
quantity being governed by the extent to which the valve opens. 
Thus it results that the explosive mixture comes quicker into contact 
with the side of the incandescent tube, and ignition is more rapid and 
intense. In practice the valve should open very little, and not too 
soon. Were it to open too quickly or too much, ignition would not 
take place, and the motor would stop. The time and extent of 
opening can be altered at will by causing a spring of variable power 
and tension to act on the valve head. Thus the speed of the motor 
can be regulated, and even stopped. 

Other desirable improvements in petrol motors would be to 
obviate the necessity of using cooling water, and to render starting 

o 


APPLICATIONS, EFFICIENCY, AND PROGRESS. 


583 


easier. Ihe efficiency of transmission needs to be increased, and 
should be made the object of comparative experiments. This effi¬ 
ciency, according to the Chicago tests, is 50 per cent, in the case of 
petrol cars. This is rather low, though it cannot be altered without 
conclusive tests to specify the relative values of the various modes of 
transmission, which comprise toothed gear, belts, endless chains, and 
chainless systems. A very gradual change of speed would be valuable 
as long as there is not a mechanical motor elastic enough to dispense 
with the complex part that this operates^ The calculations in 
Chapter X. show that the motive power given to an automobile is 
calculated often upon unreliable bases. In the formula of the various 
resisting strains there are very dubious numerical coefficients of the 
journal friction in the axle-boxes, of the wheels and road, and of the 
transmission gear, resistances due to bad roads, pressure of air, etc., and 
it would be of general advantage if these were fixed more precisely. 
Long ago Deprez explained the method of determining the journal 
friction, and for other cases Forestier has given methods based upon 
the employment of Desdouits’ dynamometric pendulum, or an electric 
car previously furnished with a sufficiently accurate speed recorder. 
With regard to wheels, there cannot be said to be decided ideas 
respecting setting and dishing, their greater or less incompatibility 
with chain traction, their effect in turning the car, the most suitable 
diameter, the material for making spokes, width of tyres, and even 
the inflation of pneumatic tyres. Until recently it was the same for 
steering gear, but Bourlet seems to have decided the question (see 
p. 318). And there are other obscure points in automobile con¬ 
struction, each of which demands special study if real progress is to 
be made. Certainly, cars now regarded as the most improved will, in 
the course of twenty years, be looked upon as being barbarous. 

What remains to accomplish in the construction of automobiles 
should not prevent a recognition of the importance of what already 
has been done in the short period of time since the renaissance of 
motorism. The •automobile is a practicable road vehicle, whose 
compulsory stoppages on the road tend to become exceptions due to 
disorder in the ignition system, a hitch in the working of the pump, 
punctured tyre, etc., all these being so many causes of stoppage which 
can easily and even rapidly be set right. The mistrust of the public, 
caused by the imprudence of some individuals, soon must be dis¬ 
pelled, and then automobilism will be safe and economic and enter 
completely into the customs of the day. 


I 






















. 

' 

















































































INDEX 


\ 


Abeille Carburetter, 99—101 
- Pump, 135 

Accelerator, Petrol Motor, 118 
Accumulator, Blot-Fulmen, 219, 563 

-, Bouquet Garcin and Schivre, 213, 215, 218 

-, Bristol, 214, 529 

- Charging, 233, 529 

-, -, at Aubervilliers Works, 529 

-, —— and Discharging, Rates of, 554 

- Competition, 220, 554, 563 

-Couplings, 230 

-, De Claussone on, 528 

-. Dujardin, 527 

-, Edison, 219, 220 

- Efficiency, 21, 210, 578, 579 

-, Elieson, 214 

- for Electric Ignition, 120 

-, Electrical Power Storage Co., 527 

-, Faure-King, * 214 

-, Faure-Sellon-Volckmar, 215, 216 

-, Fulmen. 210, 214, 215, 521, 563 

•-, Gadot, 214 

- Grids, 211 

-, Heavy, Advantages of, 528 

-, Ideal, 216, 217 

-, Increase of Car Weight with, 209 

-, Julien, 527, 528 

-, Kaindler, 218 

-, Lamina, 214 

-■, Lead-and-lead, 210 

-, Lead-and-zinc, 211 

-, Maintenance of, 528 

-, Metaux, 563 

-, Nickel-iron, 219, 220 

-, Patin, 213, 534 

-, Pescetto, 563 

-, Phoebus, 211, 215, 218 

-, Phoenix, 563 

-, Pisca, 215, 218, 219 

-, Plante, 211 

- ——, Preventing Contact between, 212 

-- Plates, Faure, 21 

-, Poliak, 563 

-, Pope, 563 

- Power required for Car, 221 

-, Pulvis, 215. 217 

-, RafTord’s Experiments with, 18 

- Receptacles, 213 

-, Riker, 544 

—, S.A.T.M., 215, 218 
-, Specific Constants of, 215, 220 

■ -, -- Power of, 210 

-, Still, 216, 217 

-- Trials, 220, 554, 563 

-, Tudor, 209, 563 

-, Vails (F.S.V.), 215, 216 

-, Vuste and Rupprecht, 550 

--, Zinc-and-copper, 211 

Acetone, Acetylene dissolved In, 27, 28 
Acetylene, Berthelot and Vieille on, 27 
-, Calorific Value of, 26 

■ -, Carbolite for, 27 

•-, Compressed, 27 

-, Dissolved. 27, 28 

- - by Claude and Hess Process, 27 

r-, Explosibility of, 27, 28 

-, Liquid, 27, 28 


Acetylene Manufacture, 26 

- as Motive Agent, 26—28 

-- Motor, Cost of Running, 28 

- -, Cuinet, 28 

- -, Grover’s Experiments with, 28 

- -, Ravel’s Test of, 28 

- -, Turr and Chertemps. 28 

Ackermann Steering System, 2 

- Two-pivot Fore-carriage, 315 

Ackermann-Jeantaud Steerage, 315, 316 

- Wheel Couplings, 317 

Admission Valves^ Petrol Motor, 114—117 
2Eolipile, Father Verbiest’s, 3 
A.G. system Steam Motors, 79 
Agricultural Self-moving Machine, Worby, 14 
Air, Compressed, as Motor Agent, 21, 22 

- Condensers for Steam Motors, 83 

- Resistance to Rolling of Car, 247, 243 

Air-cooling of Petrol Motors, 135 
Alcohol, Advantage of using, in France, 29 

-, Calorific Value of, 29, 30 

- Car, Guttin, 33 

- - Race, Paris—Chantilly, 33 

- Carburetter, 90, 93 

-, Compared with Petrol Spirit, 29—34 

-, Composition of, 30 

-, Cost of Denaturing, 31 

-,--- Using, 31, 32 

-, Denaturing, 33 

-, Density of, 30 

-, Dusart Carburetted, 33 

-, Evaporation of, 30 

-, Fritsch Process of Extracting, 29 

-, Korting’s Experiments with, 32 

-, Krebs’ Experiments with, 33 

-Lurry, Nanceene, 512, 513 

- as Motive Agent, 29 

-■, Motor Consumption of, 30 

-, Muntz on, 29, 30 

-, Petreano’s Experiments with, 31—33 

-, Ringelmann’s Experiments with, 29—32 

-- Trials, French, 512 

-- -, Paris-Roubaix, 568 

Aluminium Alloy, Partinium, 353, 354 

- Flanges on Motor Cylinders, 135 

Amiot-Peneau Petrol Fore-carriage, 515, 516 
Amsterdam, Paris to, 561 
Anglo-French Petrol Car, 456, 457 

- -- Delivery Car. 457 

Anzin Petrol Car, 484—486 
Arbel-Tihon Rotary Steam Motor, 80, 81 
Ariel Carburetter, 437, 438 

-Petrol Motor, 437, 438 

- -- Tricycle, 437, 438 

-—— Transmission Gear, 294 
Asbestos Porcelain, 122 
Aster Carburetter, 87 

- Petrol Motor. 135, 188 

Atomiser (see Carburetter) 

Atomising Carburetters, 86, 90, 111 
Aubervilliers Works, Accumulator Charging at, 
529 

Auble Transmission Gear. 305 
Audibert-Lavirotte Benz Car, 457 

-- Petrol Motor, 154 

- Transmission Gear. 294 

Auge Petrol Motor, 118, 164 




























































































































580 


INDEX. 


Automatic Ignition, 108. 131 

- Lubricators, 365—370 

Automobile Association’s Steam Brake, 36 
Automobile Club Trials, 1900, 566 567 
Automobiie Manufacturing Co. Steam Car, 416 

- - Motor, 417, 418 

Axle, Ball Bearing, 312 

-, - Bearings for, 311 

-, Belvalette, 312 

- Boxes, Bronze, 311 

- -, Collinge, 311 

- -, Grease, 311 

- -, Iron, 311 

- -. Journal Friction in, 244 

- -, Lemoine, 311 

-> Lubricating, 311, 363 

- -, Nuts for, 311 

-, Oil, 311 

Rings for, 311 


, Combined Driving and Steering, 309 
-, Crank, with Shoes, 310 8 

-, without Shoes, 310 

-, Darracq Driving, 313 
", De Dion-Bouton Driving 314 
-, Driving, 309, 313 
-, Essentials of, 310 

Gondefer Ball Bearing, 312 
-, Gros Ball Bearing, 312 
-, Hannoyer Ball Bearing, 312 
Iron used for, 310 
- Journals, 310 

’ £' r a ic , ti ,? n Co-efflcient of, 311, 583 
, bet of, 311 
-, Lemoine Driving, 313 

-» - Steering, 327 

-, Picard Ball Bearing, 312 
“ Set ” of, 331, 332 
Simonds’ Ball Bearing, 312 
Steel useless for, 310 
-, Steering, 309, 314 
•, Straight, with Shoes, 310 
•* z—, without Shoes, 310 
, Two-pivot Broken Steering, 314 327 
, Vermot Ball Bearing, 312 


Axt, 564, 569 
Ayrton Electric Tricycle, 18 

Bacon, Roger, 1 

Baggage Car, Traction Co-efficient of, 250 
Bail and Pozzi Springs, 345 
Balanced Petrol Motors, 166, 167, 175, 176 20'i 
Balbi Carburetter, 88 ’ 

Ball Bearing Axles, Belvalette, 312 

- -. Disadvantages of,. 313 

- - , Gondefer, 312 

- - , Gros, 312 

■ - , Hannoyer. 312 

* , Picard, 312 

’ , Simonds, 312 

-- - , Vermot, 312 

- Bearings, Axle, 311, 312 

—-> Friction Reduction by, 311 
Ballin Elastic Wheel Nave, 342 
Balls, Bearing, Crushing Resistance of, 311 
Banca, Steam Turbine, 3 
Band Clutch, 262 
Bandsept, 90 

Banki and Csonka Ignition, 131 
Bardeau, 569 

Bardet and Denis Joint, 405 
Bardin, 569 

Barisien Petrol Voiturette, 442, 443 
Barras, 564 

Barrow Electric Tricycle, 542 
Bassee-Michel Battery for Ignition 119 

- Coil for Ignition, 122 

-— Ignition Plug, 122 
Batley Rotary Motor, 114 


Batteries, Primary, Consumption of, 210 

-, -, for Ignition, 119 

-, -, as Motive Power, 209, 210 

Battery, Bassee-Michel Wet, 119 

-, Bloc Dry, 120 

-, Clarence Wet, 119 

-, Etoile Dry, 120 

-, Secondary (see Accumulator) 

Bayley Steam Lurry, 384, 400, 401 
Bearings, Ball, 311, 312 

-, -, Axles with, 312 

-,-Disadvantages of, 313 

-, Balls for, 311 

-, Lubricating, 311, 312, 363 

-, Roller, 536, 537 

-, Wick Method of Lubricating, 312 

Beau de Rochas Oil Engine Cycle, 113 
Beaumont, References to, 3, 4, 9, 13, 15 16 
Beconnais, 564 

Beetz Petrol Rotarv Motor 114 201 

Beguin Elastic Wheel, 342 

Bell Crank Drive, Thornycroft, 390 

- -- Steerage Transmission, 323 

Belt Transmission, 270, 271 
Belvalette Ball Bearing Axle, 312 
Bending of Wheels, Preventing, 329 
Benoit Chains, 276 

- Pump, 135 

Benz, 18 

- Automatic Ignition, 131 

- Carburetter, 87, 151 

- Electric Ignition, 119 

- Petrol Cars, 457 

- - Delivery Car, 513 

-Motor, 113, 151—153, 259 

~nT* Fingelmann’s Experiments 

wiiii, ^y—51 

- Two-stroke Cycle Motor, 151 

- Wheel Couplings, 318 

Benzine Motors, 34 
Bernardi Catalytic Ignition, 130, 131 
Berrenberg Petrol Motor 114 
Benzoline (see Petrol Spirit) 

Berlin Omnibus Co. Electric Omnibus, 550 

Berlin, Paris to, 569 

Berret Petrol Car, 486 487 

Bersey Electric Cars, 527, 550 

Berteaux, 564 , 569 

Berthelot on Acetylene, 27 

Best Petrol Tractor, 514 

Bevel Wheels, Lubricating, 363 

Bicycle, Bluhm and Baur Motor 430 

-, Boulevard Motor, 428 

-, Centaure Motor, 428 

-, Centenari Motor, 428 

-, Constantine Motor 430 

-, Daimler Motor, 426 

-, Ducommun Motor, 428 

-, Holden Motor, 431 

-, Marsh Motor, 428 

-, Minerva Motor, 430 

’ 426 t0r ’ Advanta = es and Disadvantages of. 


Mounting Steerage for Cars, 314 
—, Orient Motor, 428 

-, Parfaite Motor, 430 

, Position of Motor on, 426 
, Republic Motor, 428 

-, Royal Enfield Motor 428 

-, Singer Motor, 430 

-, Skidding of, 426 

-, Shaw Motor, 430 

-’ ^ ar , ner Motor, 426, 428 

—- Wolfmuller Motor, 426 
Bird Petrol Car, 507 

- Steerage, 327 

— Transmission Gear, 300 
Blant (see Le Blant) 

Blaxton Boiler, 58 







































































































INDEX. 


587 


Blaxton Burner, 58 

Bloc Battery for Ignition, 120 

Block Chains, 275 

- Transmission Gear, 289, 290 

Blot-Fulmen Accumulator, 219, 563 
Bluhm and Baur Motor Bicycle, 430 
Bodies, 352, 353 

-, Avoiding Large Transversal Surfaces 

with, 353 

--, Bevelled Glasses in front of, 353 

-, Design of, 352, 353 

-, Essentials of, 352 

-, Partinium, 352, 353 

Bodman (see Simpson and Bodman) 

Boiler, Blaxton, 58 

-, Bollee, 37 

-Burners, 62 

- -, Blaxton, 58 

- -, Clarkson and Capel, 56 

- -, Lifu, 47 

• - -, Longuemare, 55, 56 

—— -, Musker, 45 

-, Burstall and Hall, 6, 7 

-, Church, 12, 13 

-, Clarkson and Capel, 416 

-, Coulthard Eire-tube, 36 

-, Dance, 9 

-, De Dion-Bouton, 40—43 

-, Durenne, 40 

-, Essentials of, 35 

-, Ether instead of Water for, 20 

-, Explosion Risk with, 61 

■-, Field, 9 

-, Field-type, 37—40 

-, Fire-tube, 35, 61 

-, Freadley, 48 

-, Gibbs, 13 

-, Gillet, 48 

-, Griffiths, 5 

-, Gurney, 8 

-, Hancock, 10, 11 

-, Instantaneous Vaporisation, 48 

-, James, 6 

-, Kecheur, 61 

-, Le Blant, 59 

-, Leyland Fire-tube, 35 

-, Lifu, 47, 48 

-, Macerone and Squire, 12 

-, Merryweather, 398 

-, Montier and Gillet, 61 

-, Maudsley and Field, 9 

-, Musker, 44, 45 

-, Negre Heavy, 44 

-, - Light, 59, 60 

-, Piat, 405 

-, Pot, 401 

- Pumps, Serpollet, 52, 54 

• -, Ravel Water-tube, 36, 37 

-, Rowan, 40 

-, Scott, 38—40 

-■, Serpollet, 48—55 

-, Simpson and Bodman, 57, 58 

• -, Stanley, 48, 419 

-, Steel for constructing, 62 

-, Tangye and Johnson, 61 

-, Thermal Efficiency of, 575, 576 

-, Thirion, 40 

-, Thorny croft, 46 

-, Toward and Philipson, 61, 382 

- Tubes, Gills on, 61 

-, Tubular, 35 

-, Turgan, 46 

-, Valentin, 60 

-, Water-tube, 36, 61 

-, Weidknecht, 43, 44 

-, Weight of, 236 

-, Westinghouse Horizontal Tube, 40 

Boilers, Comparison of, 61, 62 

--, General Considerations on, 234—237 

-, Objections to, 236, 237 


Bolide Petrol Car, 483, 484 

- -Motor, 483, 484 

Bollee Boiler, 37 

- Brake Device, 355 

- Car Transmission Gear, 279 

- Carburetter, 93 

- - (De Dietrich System), 96 

- Double-acting Brake, 360 

- Ignition Tube Burner, 127 

-Joint, 127 

- (A.) Petrol Car, 461, 462 

-(L.) Petrol Car, 487—489 

- Petrol Motor, 156, 157, 184, 185, 259 

- - Torpedo Car, 462 

- - Voiturette, 439, 440 

- Small Petrol Motor, 184, 185 

-Steam Omnibus, La Nouvelle . 17, 371 

--, L'Obeissante, 17, 315, 371 

- Steerage, 320 

- Transmission Gear, 279, 488 

- Two-cylinder Petrol Motor, 156, 157 

- - Steam Motor, 64 

- Voiturette Transmission Gear, 271, 296—293 

- - Underframe, 350 

- Wheel Couplings, 318 

Bonnafous Clutch, 262, 263 

Borame and Julien’s Determinations, 258 

Bordeaux, Paris to, 371, 452, 558, 563, 564 

Bordet Chains, 278 

Bouche Petrol Motor, 168, 169 

Boulevard Motor Bicycle, 428 

Boulton, Matthew, 4 

Bouquet-Garcin-Schivre Accumulator, 213, 215, 
218 

-- Electric Car, 533 

- - Couplers, 533, 534 

Bouquillon Tyres, 336 
Bourdon Multiple Lubricator, 369, 370 
Bourdon-Weidknecht Steam Motor, 75—77 
Bourlet on Air Resistance, 248 

- Steerage, 316, 583 

- - and Slide Mechanism, 318—320 

- Wheel Couplings, 317 

Bouvier-Dreux Carburetter, 102 
Bouyssou-Dore Electric Fore-carriage Trans¬ 
mission, 306, 307, 534 
Bovet (see De Bovet) 

Boxes, Axle, Lubricating, 363 

-, Collinge Axle, 311 

-, Grease Axle, 311 

-, Lemoine Axle, 311 

-, Patent Oil, 311 

Brabant on Tyres, 334 

Braby and Sales’ Carburetter, 103 

Brake, Automobile Association Steam, 36 

-, De Dietrich Petrol, 578, 580 

-, De Dion-Bouton, Efficiency, etc., of, 579, 

580 

-, Le Blant Steam, 382 

-, Pauline, 374 

-, Peugeot Petrol, 456 

Brake Test, Cord, 257 

-- -, Prony, 255 

-——, Ringelmann, 257 

Brakes, Action of, 354 

-, Bollee, 355 

-,-Double-acting, 360 

-, Cloos and Schmaltzer, 356 

-, Coiled, 356—360 

-, -, Defect of, 358 

-, -, Special Province of, 357 

- Columbia Crown, 548 

-, Darracq, 358 

-, De Dion-Bouton, 355 

-, Double-acting, 358—360 

-, Electric Motors as, 232 

-, Gondefer Gros and Pichard, 360 

-, Hautier, 359 

-, Jeantaud Double-acting, 358, 359 

-, Jubel, 360 




















































































































































588 


INDEX. 


Brakes, Krebs Double-acting, 360 

-, Lagard, 354, 355 

-, Landry-Beyroux, 357 

-, Lehut, 356 

-, Lemoine Rope, 356 

-, Monnard, 536 

-, Morrisse, 355 

-, Petrol Motors as, 128, 354 

-, Plate, 356 

-, Pulley, 356 

-, Renault, 359, 360 

- required by French Law 354 

-, Rope, 356—360 

——• -, Defect of, 358 

-, Special Province of, 357 

-\ 7C/I ~7 rz 


-, Shoe, 354—356 

~35Q ^vantages and Disadvantages of, 

-, Shoes of, 355 

-, Shoe-to-tyre, 354 

-, Tyre, 354—356 

-, Weidknecht, 357 

-, Pawl, 361 

-. Tyre-to-shoe, 355 

Brake-wagonette, Toward and Philipson 416 
Braking Effects of Motors, 128, 232, 354 ’ 

Bramahs Yard, Steam Car built in, 5 
Brampton Chains, 277 
Brasier, 569 

Briggs Petrol Motor, 192 
Brillie, 569 (see also Gobron-Brillie) 

Distributor Carburetter, 106—108 
— Epicycloidal Steerage, 325—327 
Bristol Accumulator, 214, 529 
Britannia Petrol Motor, 178, 179 
Broken Axle Steerage, Two-pivot, 314 
Bronze Axle Boxes, 311 
Brouhot Pawl and Ratchet Gear, 275, 480 

-- Petrol Car, 478—480 

- - Motor, 168 

with” 29l_f 1 ingelmann s Experiments 

- Transmission, 2 

-— Underframes, 352 

Brunler Cylinder Lubricator, 365 
Brunton Locomotive, 6 
Bubbling Carburetters, 86 
Buchet Electric Ignition, 165 

- Petrol Motor, 164, 165 

r— Transmission Gear, 295 
Burners, Blaxton Boiler, 58 
-, Boiler, 62 

-, Bollee Ignition Tube, 127 

-, Clarkson and Capel, 56 

, Clement and Michaux, 129 
-, Ignition Tube, 127, 129 

’ NT NT,’ Consumption of, 578 
-, Lifu Boiler, 47 

-, Longuemarei Boiler, 55 56 

-- “— Ignition Tube, 127 

-, Musker Boiler, 45 

“—. Stanley Boiler, 419 ' 

Burstall-Hall Boiler, 6 7 

- Steam Car, 6, 7 

--• - Motor, 7 

’Bus (see Omnibus) 

Cab, Draullette Electric, 538, 539 

-, Electric Vehicle Co., 543 

-, Krieger Electric, 521, 522 

’ ■> Jeantaud Electric, 521 

-, Jenatzy Electric, 525 

-, London Electric, 550 

—, Moris and Salom Electric 543 

-, Sturgess Electric, 543 

- Trials, 221, 520, 562 

Calbet, e D°r!, e 581 PrieSUey Eleotrlc . 540-542 
Calcium Carbide Manufacture, 26 


Calcium Carbide, New, 27 
Calorific Value of Acetylene. 26 

- - - Alcohol. 29, 30 

- - - Coal, 19 

- :- - Coal-tar Oil, 21 

-- Petrol Spirit, 20, 30 

- - - Petroleum. 20 

Cam. Ignition, of Petrol Motor, 122 
Cambier Petrol Car, 459, 460 

- - Lurry, 513 , 

- - Motor, 156 

- - Omnibus, 460, 513 

Canello-Durkop Petrol Car, 490 49? 

--Motor, 174, 175 

Canstatt Change-speed Gear, 509 
Car (see Electric, Petrol, Steam, etc.) 
Carbolite, Hartenstein’s 27 
Carbonic Acid Motors, 24 25 
Carburetted Alcohol, Dusart, 33 

Explosive Mixture, Proportions of, 85, 

Carburetter, Abeille, 99—101 

-, Alcohol, 90, 93 

-, Ariel, 437, 438 

-, Aster. 87 

-, Atomising, 86, 90, 111 

-, Balbi, 88 

-, Benz, 87. 151 

-, A. Bollee, 96 

-, L. Bollee, 93 

-, Bouvier-Dreux, 102 

-, Brillie, 106—108 

-, Bubbling, 86 

-, Chauveau, 94 

, Comparison of Types of, 111, 112 

-, Constant Level, 86 

-, Daimler-Phoenix, 90 

, Dawson Petroleum, 108, 109 

-, De Dietrich, 96 

, De Dion-Bouton Atomising, 91, 92 11? 

-. - Float, 87. 185 

-, Decauville, 87 

, Delamarc-Deboutteville 18 

-, Distributor, 106 

-, Dorey, 102 

, Faure Petroleum, 103 

-, Fire Risk with, 112 

-, Gautier, 105 

—, Gautier-Wehrle, 95 
, Gibbon Petroleum. 108 
, Gobron-Brillie, 106—108 
—, Henroid, 106, 165 
—, Huzelstein. 104 
—, Jupiter, 102 
—, Klaus, 106 
—, Lepape, 87, 101 
—, Licking, 86, 87, 112 
—, Longuemare, 93, 94 
—, Loyal, 101 
—, Lufberv, 88 

H’ Mors W 95 d ' Bennet PetroleurQ . 109—111 

, Motors without 111 

-•, Papillon, 88 

-, Petreano, 89 

-, Petroleum, 108 

-, Peugeot, 97—99 

-, Phoenix, 90 

-, Pope, 88 

-, Pretot, 104 

-, Rapin Float, 86 

-, Ravel, 163 

-, Richard, 96 97 

-, Rochet, 94 

—Sur7a S c y e,V a 87 S U2 SaleS ““ Brab ^ 103 

-, Tenting, 87’ 

—, Wick, 87, 88 
Carnot Cycle, 196 

Garrett and Marshall Road Steamer, 15 








































































































INDEX. 


589 


Carriage, Traction Co-efficient of, 250 
Cart, Mann Steam, 407. 408 
Castellane, Nice to, 562 
Catalytic Ignition, 131 

- -, Electro, 131 

Cee Springs, 344, 345 
Cementing Tyres on Felloes, 336 
Centaure Motor Bicycle, 428 
Centenari Motor Bicycle, 428 
Chain, Benoit, 276 

-, Block, 275 

-, Brampton, 277 

-, Breakage of, 278, 279 

-, French, 277 

-, Jacquet and Bordet, 278 

-, Lubricating, 363 

-, Renolds, 277, 278 

——, Roller, 275 

- and Toothed Gear Steerage, 320 

- Transmission Gear, 275—279 

-, Varietur, 277, 278 

- Wheels. Lubricating, 363 

Chameroy Protected Tyre, 341 

Change-speed Gear (see Speed-changing Gear) 

Chantilly-Paris Race, 33 

Chaplin and Gibbs’ Steam Coaches, 13 

Char-a-banc, Le Blant Steam, 381 

Charging Accumulators, 233, 529, 554 

-- at Aubervilliers Works, 529 

Charging-saturator, Sales and Braby, 103 
Charron. 569 

Chasseloup-Laubat’s Journey on .Teantaud Car, 
575 

Chaudun Petrol Rotary Motor, 204—206 
Chauveau Carburetter, 94 
Chenevier Fluidity Indicator for Oil, 363 
Chertemps and Turr Acetylene Motor, 28 
Chevalet’s Odour-reducing Attachment 139 
Chicago Race and Trials, 504, 554, 559 ’ 

Choiseul, 1 
Church Boilers, 12, 13 

- Steam Coaches, 12, 13 

Clarence Battery for Ignition, 119 
Clarke Petrol Tractor, 514 
Clarkson-Capel Boiler, 416 

- Burner, 56 

- Steam Landau. 415, 416 

- - Lurry, 384, 398—400 

- - Motor, 73. 74 

Claude and Hess Dissolved Acetylene, 27 
Claussone (see De Claussone) 

Clement, 569 

Clement and Micliaux Burner, 129 
Clerk, Dugald, 197 
Cleveland Electric Car, 548 
Clincher Pneumatic Tyre, 339 

- Solid Tyre, 336 

Clipper Pneumatic Tyre, 340 
Cloos and Schmaltzer Brake, 356 
Clutch, Band, 262 
-, Crab, 261 

-, De Bovet Magnetic, 269 

-, Friction Plate, 270 

-. -, with Inverted Cones, 261 

-, -, - Straight Cones, 261 

-, Gautier-Wehrle, 263, 264 

-, Hall, 270 

-, Herschmann, 269 

-, Hydraulic, 269, 270 

-, Julien, for Cars, 265, 266 

-, -.-Motor-cycles, 264, 265 

-, Krebs Magnetic, 269 

-, Magnetic, 269 

•-, Megy Friction, 269 

-, Piat Friction, 268 

--, Villard and Bonnafous, 262, 263 

Coach. Church Steam, 12, 13 

-, Gibbs and Chaplin, 13 

-, Macerone and Squire, 12 

- Tolls, Early, 15 


Coal, Calorific Value of, 19 
Coal-tar Oil, Calorific Value of, 21 
Co-efficients, Traction, 245, 246, 250 

-, -, of Iron Tyres, 246 

-. -, - Pneumatic Tyres, 246 

Coil, Bassee and Michel, 121 

-, Consumption of, 121 

-, Electric Ignition, 121 

-, Renovating, 121 

-, Rochefort. 121 

-, Rossel, 121 

-, Ruhmkorff, 121 

Coiled Brakes, 356—360 

- -, Defect of, 358 

- -, Special Province of, 357 

-Springs, 345, 346 

Collinge Axle Boxes, 311 
Collins, 569 

Columbia Crown Brake, 548 

- Electric Car, 545—548 

-- Phaeton, 547 

- Petrol Car, 506, 507 

-Delivery Tricycle, 449, 450 

--Motor, 506 

- Suspension, 347 

- Transmission Gear, 307, 308 

Compagnie Frangaise des Voitures Automo¬ 
biles Car, 526, 527 

Compagnie Generale de Paris Omnibus, 378 
Compagnie Generale des Automobiles, 470—472 

- Omnibus, 378 

- Rotary Motor, 79 

- Suspension, 347, 348 

- Transmission Gear, 281 

Compagnie Generale des Voitures Cars, 527 
Compagnie Internationale des Transports 
Automobiles (see Jenatzy) 

Compagnie des Moteurs et Automobiles Car, 
467—470 

Compagnie des Voitures Electromobiles 
Steerage, 327 
Compound Tyres, 338 

Compressed Acetylene as Motive Agent, 27 

- Air as Motive Agent, 21 

- - Car, Du Motay, 22 

- - , Fordham, 22 

- - , Mann, 22 

- - —, Wright, 22 

- --- Goods Van, Molas Lamielle and Tes- 

sier, 23 

--, Pressure at which to use, 23 

—— - Tricycle, Hartley, 23 

Concave Pentagon Wheel Coupling, 318 
Condensers for Steam Motors, 83 

-, Lubricating, 83 

Cones, Change-speed, 270 
Coninck (see De Coninck) 

Connecting Rod Couplings (see Wheel Coup¬ 
lings) 

-—- Rods, Petrol Motor, 138 
Conrad Petrol Motor, 113, 115, 192 
Consolin Lubricator, 366 
Constant Level Carburetters, 86 
Constantine Motor Bicycle, 430 
Continental Pneumatic Tyre. 339 
Controller, Electric Motor, 223, 233 
Cooling Petrol Motors, 131—137 
Coke, Calorific Value of, 237 
Copper Flanges on Motor Cylinders, 135 
Copper-and-zinc Accumulators, 211 
Copperplating Petrol Motor Cylinders, 135 
Cord Brake Test, 257 
Cormier, 569 

Couget Demultiplicator, 434 
Coulomb’s Experiments, 243 
Coulthard Fire-tube Boiler, 36 

-- Steam Lurry. 384, 391, 393, 394 

- -- Motor, 77 

- Transmission Gear, 281 

- Triangular Drive, 393 





































































































590 


INDEX. 


Coup de Poing Lubricator, 366 
Coupe, Darracq Electric, 520 

-, Jeantaud Electric, 521 

-, Jenatzy Electric, 521, 524—526 

-, Krieger Electric, 521, 522 

-, Lohner Electric, 550 

-, Peugeot Petrol, 456, 581 

Couplers, Bouquet Garcin and Schivre, 533, 534 

■-, Compagnie Fran^aise des Voitures Elec- 

tromobiles, 526 

-, Draullette Electric, 538 

-, Hospitalier on, 526 

-, Jeantaud Electric, 522, 523 

-, Jenatzy Electric, 525 

-, Krieger Electric, 523, 524 

——• Vedovelli-Priestley Electric, 540 
Coupling (see also Clutch, Couplers, and 
Wheel Couplings) 

-, Accumulator, 230 

-. Electric Motor, 230. 231 

Crab Clutch, 261 
Crank Axles, 310 
Cranks, Lubricating, 363 
Crawhez (see De Crawhez) 

Creusot Wooden Wheels, 332 
Crown Brake, Columbia, 548 
Cugnot Steam Trolleys, 1—3 
Cuinet- Acetylene Motor, 28 
Curves, Resistance due to, 247 
Cycle, Carnot, 196 

-, Four-stroke, 113 

-, Six-stroke, 114 

——, Two-stroke, 113 

Cycles (see Bicycle, Tricycle, and Quadri- 
cycle) 

Cyclone Petrol Motor, 188, 189 
Cyclope Petrol Motor, 164 
Cylinders, Lubricators for, 365 
Petrol Motor, 131—137 

-, Cooling, 132—137 

Lubricating, 132, 363 


Steam Motor, Lubricating, 363 
Walls of, 132 


Cyrano Petrol Voittfrette, 443, 444 


Daimler, 18 

- Benzine Tramcar Motor, 34 

-Early Motor, 132 

- Motor Bicycle, 426 

-Petrol Car (English) 492 

-(German), 489, 490 

--- Lurry, 513 

--- Motor, 113, 140—142 

---, Efficacy of, 577 

---. Instantaneous Ignition in, 142 

- Transmission Gear, 490 

Daimler-Phoenix Carburetter 90 

- Petrol Motor, 142—147, 259 

Dalifol and Thomas Pump, 135 
Dallery Steam Car, 4 
Dance Boiler, 9 

-* Steam Car Service, 8 

Darracq Brake, 358 

- Driving Axle, 313 

-- Electric Coup<§, 520 

-Petrol Car, 487—489 

-- Transmission Gear, 488 

-- Underframe, 351 

Darwin. Dr. Erasmus, 4 
David Petrol Car, 105, 472 
Davis Steerage, 320 

Dawson Ignition Magneto Machine, 181 182 

-- Petroleum Carburetters, 108, 109 

--Motor, 114, 180, 181 

De Bovet Magnetic Clutch, 269 
De Claussone on Heavy Accumulators, 528 
De Coninck Epicycloidal Steerage, 325 
De Crawhez, 564, 569 
De Dietrich Carburetter, 96 


De Dietrich Petrol Brake, 578 580 

-Car, 461, 462 

-- - Lurry, 507, 508, 574 

- Transmission Gear, 298 

- Underframe, 352 

De Dion-Bouton Atomising Carburetter, 91, 92, 

-• Boiler, 40—43 

-- Brake, 355 

-- Driving Axle, 314 

-- Electric Ignition, 119 

- Float Carburetter, 87, 185 

-Petrol Car, 448 

-Motor, 153, lo4 

---Transmission Gear, 280, 283—285 

-*- Motors, 153, 154, 185—187, 259, 574 

---. Fan and Spray-cooled, 442 

-> Fitting Steatite Flug to 124 

-Tricycie, 86, 432 

-- - -, Consumption of, 581 

-■-- Motor, 185—187 

- - - Transmission Gear, 282 

-- - Voiturette, 446—448 

-- Steam Brake, Efficiency of, 579, 580 

-- - Car, 573 

-- - Motor, 74, 75, 259 

-- Omnibus, 372 

-- Transmission Gear, 280 

-- Tractor, 373, 374 

■ Pauline Brake hauled by, 374 

---Tricycle, etc., 17 

— Traction Engine Boiler, 42 
De Knyff, 569 

De Lambilly Rotary Steam Motor 81 82 
De Mauni Elastic Wheel 342 

- , Experiments by, 249 

-- on Pneumatic Tyres, 340 

r— - Tyre Width, 330 

De Turckheim, 569 
Decauville Carburetter, 87 

-- Electric Ignition, 441 

-- Petrol Motor. 187, 574 

- -- Voiturette, 441, 574 

*7— TT’ Starting Gear on, 138 

, Foucher and Delachanel) 
Delahaye, Electric Ignition 155 ; 

-- Petrol Car, 457, 458 

-- Motor, 154, 155 

- -- Voiturette, 448 

- Steerage, 322 

r~• Transmission Gear, 294 
Delamare-Deboutteville Carburetter, 18 

- Gas Tricycle. 18 

Delbruck Demultiplicator, 434 
Deliry Petrol Motor, 114 
Delisle, 569 

Delivery Car (see also Lurry) 

-» Anglo-French, 457 

-- -, Benz Petrol, 513 

-. Jenatzy Electric, 525 

--- -, Milde Electric, 530 

~ -■ Milde-Mondos Electric, 530 

, Motor Manufacturing Co.. 513 
, Panhard and Levassor, 507, 578 580 

- ——. Peugeot Petrol, 507 

- Tricycle Columbia Petrol, 449, 450 

449 turette ’ Lant y Hommen and Dumas, 

Demultiplicators, 283 286 434 

-, Couget, 434 

-, Delbruck, 434 

-, Didier, 434 

-, Peugeot, 434 

Denaturing Alcohol, 31, 33 
Denayrouse, 90 
Density of Alcohol, 30 

r—-Petrol Spirit, 30, 84 

Deprez on Journal Friction, 583 
References to, 20, 26, 235 

I QY- SCO ’ 


Dernier, 569 


























































































































INDEX. 


591 


Desdouits Dynamometric Pendulum, 583 
Desjacques System of Cooling, 136 
Devil-drag, 361 

-, Rothschild, 361 

Dentz Benzine Locomotives, 34 
Didier Demultiplicator, 434 
Dieppe, Paris to, 452, 561 
Diesel Automatic Ignition, 131 

-Motor, Consumption of, 578 

•- -, Mechanical Efficiencv of, 578 

- -, Principles of, 195, 196 

- -, Thermal Efficiency of, 578 

- Motors described, 196—198 

- Two-stroke Cycle Oil Motor, 198—201 

Dietz Traction Engine, 17 
Differential Gear, 274, 275, 305 

- -, Arresting, 279 

- -, Lubricating, 363 

- -•, Pawl Device to replace, 480 

Diligence. Traction Co-efficient of, 250 
Diligeon System of Cooling, 137 

-- Transmission Gear, 298 

Dished Wheels, 329, 332 

Dissolved Acetylene as Motive Agent, 27, 28 
Distillery Oil as Motive Agent, 34 

-• -, Cost of. using, 34 

- -, Motor Consumption of, 34 

Distribution, Petrol Motor. 114—116 
Distributor Carburetters, 106 
Dodement Petrol Rotarv Motor, 114, 202, 203 
Dogcart, Immisch Electric, 18 
——, Morris and Salom Electric, 542 

-, Riker Electric, 543, 544 

Dore Electric Car, 534 

- Motor Fore-carriage, 517, 518 

- Steerage, 314, 327 

- Transmission Gear, 306, 307, 534 

Dorey Carburetter, 102 

Double Quadrilateral Wheel Couplings, 317 
Dowsing Petrol-electric Car, 552 
Drag, 361 

-, Rothschild, 361 

Draullette Electric Cab, 538, 539 

-- --- Coupler, 538 

-- - Motor, 538 

Drevdal Oleopump, 368, 369 

-- Terminus Lubricator, 367, 368 

Driving Axles, 309, 313 

- Wheels, Effort developed at, 243 

- -, Independence of, 260 

Drojki, Jeantaud Electric, 521 
Du Motay Compressed Air Car, 22 
Ducasble Tyres, 337, 339 
Duchatelet Steerage, 327 
Dueommun Motor Bicycle, 428 
Ducroiset Change-speed Gear, 487 

-- Petrol Car, 486, 487 

Duflos-Clairdent- Electric Ignition, 121 
Dufour Petrol Motor, 113, 115, 118, 192 

- System of Cooling, 137 

Dujan Coupling for Electric Motors, 232 
Dujardin Accumulators, 527 
Dunlop Pneumatic Tyre, 339 
Dupoit, Experiments by, 250 

- Formula for Resistance to Rolling, 249 

-- on Tyre Width, 330 

Dupont System of Cooling, 133 

Durenne Boiler, 40 

Durkop (see Canello-Durkop) 

Duryea Petroleum Car. 504 

-- - Motor, 114, 115, 195 

-- Steerage, 315 

-■ Transmission Gear. 505 

Dusart Carburetted Alcohol, 33 
Dwelshauvers-Dery on Steam Motor Effi¬ 
ciency, 576 

Dynamo, Efficiency of, 578 

- for Electric Ignition, 120 

-, Electric Motor used as, 232 

Dynamometric Pendulum, Desdouits’, 583 


Edgeworth’s Experiments, 243 
Edison Accumulator, 219, 220 
Edmond, 564, 569 
Efficiencies, etc., 576, 582 
Efficiency of Accumulators, 578, 579 

-- -- Dynamo, 578 

-- -- Electric Car, 579 

-- -- -- Motor, 579 

-, Need of Increased, 582 

-, Organic, of Petrol Motor, 577 

-» -, - Steam Motor, 576 

-, Thermal, of Boiler, 575, 576 

——» -- Diesel Motor, 578 

-» -, - Petrol Motor, 577 

-» -, - Steam Motor, 575, 576 

-, Total, of Petrol Car, 577, 578 

-. -, - Steam Car, 577 

-- of Transmission Gear, 577—579 583 

Egerton’s Motor Bicycle Ride 425 
Egger Electric Motor, 550 
Elan Petrol Motor, 170 

-—— Voiturette, 441 

Elastic Naves, 342 
-—- Wheels, 342 

Electric Cabs, Draullette, 538, 539 

- -, Electric Vehicle Co., 543 

-- -, Jeantaud, 521 

- -, Jenatzy, 525 

- -, Krieger, 521, 522 

- -, London Street, 550 

- -, Morris and Salom, 543 

---, Paris, 218 

- -, Riker, 543—545 

- -, Sturgess, 543 

- -, Trials of 1898, 520 

- -, Vedovelli-Priestley, 540—542 

- Cars, Accumulators for, 209—222 

- -, Applications of, 575 

- -, Arrangement of, 520 

- -, Bersey, 527, 550 

- -, Bouquet Garcin and Schivre, 533 

- -, Chasseloup-Laubat’s Journey in, 575 

- -, Cleveland, 548 

- -, Columbia, 543—548 

- -, Compagnie Frangaise des Voitures 

Electromobiles, 526, 527 

- -, Compagnie Generale des Voitures, 

527—529 

- —, Compagnie Internationale des Trans¬ 
ports Automobiles (see Jenatzy) 

- -, Dore, 534 

- —, Efficiency of, 579 

-- -, Elieson, 549, 550 

—— -, Krieger, 521—524 

- -, Jeantaud, 521, 522, 575 

- -, Jenatzy, 521, 524—526 

- -, Milde, 530, 531 

- -, Milde-Mondos, 529 

- -, Monnard, 535—538 

-- -, Morris and Salom, 542, 543 

- -, Patin, 534, 535 

- -, Primary Batteries for, 209, 210 

- -, Richard, 535 

- -, Sperry, 548, 549 

- - Transmission Gear, 305 

- - - -, Efficiency of, 579 

--- -, Losses in, 252, 253 

-- -, Weight of Parts of, 222 

- Coupe, Darracq, 520 

- -, Jeantaud, 521 

- -, Jenatzy, 521, 524—526 

- -, Krieger, 521, 522 

- -, Lohner, 550 

— Couplers, Bouquet Garcin and Schivre, 
533, 534 

- -, Compagnie Frangaise des Voitures 

Electromobiles, 526 

--, Draullette, 538 

- -, Jeantaud, 522, 523 

- -, Jenatzy, 525 

















































































































































































592 


INDEX. 


Electric Couplers, Krieger, 523, 524 

- -, Vedovelli-Priestley, 540 

- Delivery Car, Jenatzy, 525 

- -- -■, Milde, 530 


- -, Milde-Mondos, 530 

Dogcart, Immisch, 18 

-, Morris and Salom, 542 

-, Riker, 543, 544 

Drojki, Jeantaud, 222, 521 
Fore-carriage, 533 

-, Bouyssou-Dore, 306, 307, 534 

-, Dore, 517 

Ignition, 118 

-, Accumulators for, 120 

-, Bassee and Michel Battery for 119 

-, Benz, 119 ’ 

-, Bloc Dry Battery for, 120 

-, Buchet, 165 

-, Clarence Battery for, 119 

-. Coils for, 121 (see also Coils) 

compared with Tube Ignition, 128, 


129 


, Current Consumption for 121 

- -, De Dion-Bouton, 119 

- -, Decauville, 441 

- -> Dry Batteries for, 120 

- -. Duflos-Clairdent, 121 

- -, Dynamo for, 120 

~ -. Etoile Dry Battery for, 120 

- -, Houpied, 121 

- -, Lufbery, 121 

~ -. Magneto Machine for, 121, 122 

- -, Mors, 120, 464 

- -, Peugeot, 456 

- -, Principles of, 118 

- -, Richard, 459 

-, Spark for, 118, 122 

- -—. Wet Batteries for, 119 

- Landau, Jeantaud, 521 

- Landaulet, Jeantaud, 222 

- Motor, Advantages of, 222, 241 

--» Altering Speed of, 230 

compared with other Motors, 241 

- -, Controller on, 223, 233 

- -. Construction of, 229 

- -, Coupling, 230, 231 

' -, Disadvantages of, 241 

-, Draullette, 538 

' -» Dujan Coupling for 232 

- --, Edie, 546 

- -, Efficiency of, 579 

--, Egger, 550 

■ -. Essentials of, 224 

■ -Field Excitation, Modifying 231 

-, Four-pole, 226, 229 

-, Heating of, 229 

-, Jeantaud, 522 

-—, Jenatzy, 259 

-, Joel, 227—229 

, Krieger Four-pole, 226, 523 

-, Lundell, 526 

-, Materials for, 229 

-, Milde-Mondos, 259 

-, Monnard, 535, 536 

-, Paccinotti, 533 

-, Pat in, 224, 534 

-. Postel-Vinay, 259, 529, 531 

-, Rechniewskz, 520 

-, Reversing, 260 

, Rheostat used with. 230 

-, Richard, 535 

-, Riker, 544 

-, Series Excitation of, 223 

-, Shunt Excitation of, 223 

-, Slow Speed of, 224 

•, Special Province of, 241 242 

-- Speed Regulator, 223, 233 

-, Speeds of, 259 

-, Still, 226, 227 

, Tangential Speed of, 224, 225 


Electric Motor used as Brake, 232 

- - - - Dynamo, 232 

-, Variable Torque of, 222, 223 


Omnibus, Berlin Omnibus Co., 550 

-, Milde, 530 

-, Raffard, 520 

Phaeton, Columbia, 547 

-, Jeantaud, 18 

-, Patin, 534, 535 

-, Pouchain, 13, 520 

Test of Motor Power, 257 
Torpedo Car, Jenatzv, 526 
Traction, Trolley, 209 
Tramcars, 209 


-Tricycle, Ayrton. 13 

--, Barrows, 542 

- -, Raffard, 520 

- -, Trouve, 18 

- Tri-voiturette, Patin, 535 

- Victoria, Krieger, 222 

- Vis-a-vis, Krieger, 521, 522 

- Voiturette, Disadvantages of, 532 

- -, Joel, 228 

-, Milde-Greffe, 531, 532 

•, Patin, 535 


; > Volk, 18 

ttw^ C Veh ^, cle Co -> 543 (see also Columbia) 
Electric-gas Car (see Gas-electric) 
Electric-petrol Car (see Petrol-electric) 

Electi lc-steam Car (see Steam-electric) 
Electro-catalytic Ignition, Wydt, 130 
Electrobat, Morris and Salom, 542 543 
Elieson Accumulator, 214 
—7 Electric Car, 549, 550 
Ellis and Steward Transmission Gear, 302 
Engelbert Pneumatic Tvre, 339 
Engnmjsee Motor, Petr'ol Motor, Steam Motor, 

England, History of Automobiles in, 1 3—16 
Eole Pneumatic Tyre, 339 
Epicycloidal Gear, Humpage, 272 273 

-Steerage, Brillie, 325—327 

- -, De Coninck, 325 

~—, Steam Motors, 79, 80 
Esperance Petrol Motor 170—172 
Essence (see Petrol Spirit) 

Ethylene" 1 27 d 29 f ° r Boilers - 20 

Etoile Battery for Ignition, 120 
Evans Steam Car 4 
Evaporation of Alcohol, 50 
— —- Petrol Spirit, 30 
Exhaust Box on Petrol Motors, 139 
, Lead of, in Motor, 11a 

-, Moment of, in Motor, 115 

-Pipes, Petrol Motor, 115 

- Valve Springs, 116, 117 

~ . Waives, Petrol Motor, H4—117 

Expansibility of Acetylene, 27, 28 
Explosion Risk with Boilers, 61 


Fabrice Igniter, 129, 130 
Ian-cooled Petrol Motor 442 
I arman, H., 564, 569 
Farman, M., 564 
-— Voiturette, 351, 441 
Faugere Petrol Voiturette, 448 
Faure Accumulator Grids, 211 
Petroleum Carburetter, 108 

--— Motor, 179 

I aure-King Accumulator. 214 

Feltots 33 0 lLl 3 0 7 Ick,nar Accumulator, 214 
Feraud Springs, 347 
Field and Maudsley Boiler 9 
Field-type Boilers, 37—40 ’ 

■Fire Risk with Carburetters, 112 

_ ' Ignition Burners, 129 

- Steam Motors, 83 





































































































































































INDEX. 


593 


Fire-tube Boilers, 35, 61 

Fisher Petrol-electric Wagon, 556 

Flanges on Petrol Motor Cylinders, 135 

- - Radiator Tubes, 133, 134 

Fly-by-Night, 15 

Fly-wheels of Petrol Motors, 239 
Foden Steam Lurry, 403—405 

- - Motor, 404 

Fordham Compressed Air Car, 22 
Fore-carriage, Ackermann Two-pivot, 315 
—, Amiot-Peneau Petrol, 515, 516 
—, Bouyssou-Dore, 306, 307, 534 
—, Dore Petrol or Electric, 517, 518 
—, Electric, 533 
—, Johnson, 519 
—, Lenkensperger, 315 
—, Loading of, 309, 310 
—, Lockert Petrol, 518 
—, Motor, Advantages of, 514 
—, Pivoted, 314, 327 
—, Ponsard-Ansoloni Petrol, 516, 517 
—, Pretot Petrol, 514 
—, Riancey Petrol, 518 
—, Ringelmann Petrol, 518 
—, Salles Petrol, 518 

-, Steam Driving, 424 

-, Turgan and Foy Steam, 46, 424 

Forestier, 62, 129 

- on Journal Friction, 583 

- - Lubrication of Bearings, 312 

--Serpollet Steam Car, 410 

- - Suspension, 347 

- - Tripping, 309 

- - Wheels, 329 

Foucher-Delachanel Dished Wheels, 332 

- Voiturette, 448 

Fournier, 564, 569 


France, History of Automobiles in, 1—3, 16—18 

France, Tour de, 563 

Francq Carbonic Acid Motor, 25 

Freadley Boiler, 48 

Freakley Steam Motor, 65 

Fremy and Mare Ignition Plug, 124 

French Alcohol Trials, 1901, 512 

Friction Clutch with Inverted Cones, 261 

-- -, Megy, 269 

- -, Piat, 268 

-, Plate, 270, 300 

- - with Straight Cones, 261 

- of Journals in Axle Boxes, 244 

- Plate Clutch, 270, 300 

- - Transmission Gear, 300—302 

Fritsch Process of Extracting Alcohol. 29 
Fulmen Accumulators, 210, 214, 215, 521, 563 
(see also Blot-Fulmen) 


Gadot Accumulator, 214 

Gaillardet Air-cooled Petrol Motor, 187, 188 

-- Petrol Car, 474—477 

- - Voiturette, 473 

- 10 h.p. Petrol Motor, 164 

-Transmission Gear, 287 

Gallus Pneumatic Tyre, 339 
Gardner-Sanderson Rotary Petrol Motor, 203, 
204 

Gardner-Serpollet Feed Pumps, 414 

- Steam Car, 412—414 

- - Voiturette, 412 

Gas as Motive Agent, 34 

-, Liquefied, as Motive Agent, 24, 25 

-, -, Roberts Motor using, 25 

- Motor, Rotary, 78 

Gas-electric Tramcars, Patton, 551 
Gasoline (see Petrol Spirit) 

Gas-propelled Car, Lenoir, 18 
- Tramcar, Lutrig, 24 

- Tricycle, Delamare-Deboutteville, 18, 24 

Gast, 569 

Gautier Carburetter, 105 


Gautier Petrol Motor, 114, 118, 162, 163 
Gautier-Wehrle Carburetter 95 

- Engaging Gear, 263, 264 

- Petrol Car, 470 

- Petrol Motor,- 160, 259 

- Rotary Petrol Motor, 78 

- Transmission Gear, 280 

Gerard (see also Morel and Gerard) 

- Epicycloidal Steam Motor, 80 

- Wooden Wheels, 332 

German Daimler Petrol Car, 489, 490 

Gerval Ignition, 131 

Gibbon Automatic Ignition, 108 

- Petroleum Carburetter, 108 

-Motor, 114, 178, 179 

Gibbs Boiler, 13 
Gibbs and Chaplin Coaches, 13 
Gillet and Montier Boiler, 61 
Gillett Boiler, 48 

- Steam Omnibuses, 378, 379 

- Two-cylinder Steam Motor, 74 

Gills on Boiler Tubes, 61 
Girardot, 564, 569 
Giraud, 564, 569 
Gladiator Petrol Motor, 170 

-*— - Quadricycle, 438, 439 

Glasgow Trials of 1901, 497, 513, 572 
Glasses in Front of Cars, 353 
Gobron Two-stroke Cycle Motor, 192—194 
Gobron-Brillie (see also Brillie) 

- Petrol Car, 480 

-- Motor, 169, 170 

-- -, Consumption of, 33 

-- Underframes, 351 

Gondefer Ball Bearing Axle, 312 
Gondefer Gros and Pichard Brake, 360 
Gondoin, 569 

Goods Cars (see Delivery Car and Lurry) 

- Wagon, Fisher Petrol-electric, 556 

Gordon Push-foot Car, 6 
Goret Petrol Motor, 114 194, 195 

- - Voiturette, 448 

- System of Cooling, 137 

Gradient, Resistance due to, 246, 247 
Grease Axle Boxes, 311 
Greffe (see Milde-Greffe) 

Greindel Pump, 203 
Grids, Accumulator, 211 
Griffiths Boiler, 5 

-- Steam Car, 5 

Grivel Petrol Motorcycle, 88 

Gros Ball Bearing Axle, 312 

Ground and Tyres, Adherence between, 251 

Grouvelle-Arquembourg Pump, 134 

-—- Radiator, 133 

Grover’s Acetylene Motor Experiments, 28 
Grus, 569 
Gurney Boiler, 8 

-Steam Cars, 7, 8 

Gutermuth, 197 
Guttin Alcohol Car, 33 


Haban, 569 

Hackney Carriage Trials, 221, 520, 562 

Half-nipper Springs, 344 

Hall (see also Burstall and Hall) 

- Hydraulic Clutch, 270 

- Pneumatic Wheel, 342 

Hamelle Multiple Lubricator, 367, 368 
Hancock Boiler, 10, 11 

-- Motor, 11 

-- Steam Omnibus, 10 

- - Tricycle, 10 

IJannoyer Bali Bearing Axle, 312 

■- Bronze Naves, 331 

- Springs, 345 

-- Tyres, 336 

Hartenstein’s Carbolite for Acetylene, 27 
Hartford Pneumatic Tyre, 545 


M M 



































































































594 


INDEX. 


Hartley Compressed Air Tricycle, 23 
Hartmann, Prof., 577 
Hauled Brake, Pauline, 374 

- Dray, Thornycroft, 388 

Hauling Car or Van (see Tractor) 

Hautier Brake Device, 359 

- Petrol Motor, 170—172 

- - -, Compression modified in, 117 

Hauts-fourneaux Spiral Spring, 346 

Heath, 569 

Heat Radiators, 133 

Heavy Vehicle Trials, Liverpool, 562, 570, 571 

- - -, Richmond, 564 

- -- --, Versailles, 560 

Helical Ignition Plug, 123 
Henroid Carburetter, 165 

- Distributor-carburetter, 106 

- Petrol Car, 477, 478 

-Motor, 165, 582 

Hero’s Steam Engine, 3 
Herschmann Hydraulic Clutch, 269, 270 
Hess (see Claude and Hess) 

Hill-climbing Trials, 565, 566, 570—572 
Hills Steam Coach, 13, 14 
Hinges, Lubricating, 363 

Hochgesand Lubricator or Oleopolymeter, 364 

Holden Motor Bicycle, 431 

Hollow Tyres, 338 

Holt Cylinder Lubricator, 365 

- Road Steamer, 16 

Horse, Power of, 253 
Horsepower, 255 

Hospitaller, 21, 209, 212—214, 221, 222 

- on Electric Car Efficiency, 579 

- - -- Couplers, 526 

- - Petrol Motor Consumption, 577 

Hot-water Locomotive, Lam-Francq, 26 

- Motors, 25, 26 

Houpied Electric Ignition, 121 
Hourgieres, 564, 569 
House’s System Steam Car, 422—424 
Huber-Baudry, 136 
Humber Petrol Car, 492—494 
Humpage Epicycloidal Gear, 272, 273 
Hurtu Petrol Tri-voiturette, 440 
Hurtu-Diligeon Petrol Car, 458 

- - Motor, 155 

Hutin and Leblanc System, 26 
Hutton (see Walker and Hutton) 

Huzelstein Carburetter, 104 
Hydraulic Clutch, 269, 270 


Ideal Accumulator, 216, 217 
- Petrol Motor, 165 

Ignition in Petrol Motors (for further details 
see Electric Ignition, Incandescent Tube 
Ignition, Thermo-cautery Ignition, Cata¬ 
lytic Ignition, Electro-catalytic Ignition, 
etc.) 

-, Automatic, 108, 131 

-, Banki and Csonka, 131 

-, Benz Automatic, 131 

-, Bernardi Catalytic, 130, 131 

——, Buchet Electric, 165 

- Cams, Petrol Motor, 122 

-, Catalytic, 131 

-, Decauville, 441 

-, Defective, 206 

-, Diesel Automatic, 131 

-, Electric, 118—126 

-, Electro-catalytic, 130 

-, Fabrice, 129,’130 

-, Gerval, 131 

-, Gibbon Automatic, 108 

-, Incandescent Tube, 126—129 

-, Loyal Automatic, 131 

-, Menard, 131 

-, Mors Electric, 464 

-, Peugeot Electric, 456 


Ignition Plug, 122 

- --, Bassee and Michel, 122 

- -, Fremy and Mare, 124 

-, Helical, 123 

- -, Peugeot, 125 

- -, Porcelain fracturing in, 123 

- -, Reclus, 122, 123 

- -, Richard, 124, 125 

- -, Sooting of, 122 

-- -, Steatite, 124 

-, Richard Electric, 459 

-, Southall, 131 

-, Thermo-cautery, 130 

-- Tube, L. Bollee, 127 

- - Burners, 127, 129 

-, Bollee, 127 

- - -, Clement and Michaux, 129 

- - -, Consumption of, 578 

•- - -, Fire Risk with, 129 

----, Longuemare, 127 

-, Nickel, 126, 127 

- -, Platinum, 126, 127 

- -, Porcelain, 126 

-, Wydt Electro-catalytic, 130 

Immisch Electric Dogcart, 13 
Incandescent Tube Ignition, 126—129 
- - - compared with Electric Igni¬ 
tion, 128, 129 

- - -, Consumption of, 578 

Indiarubber Tyres, Hollow, 338 

-- -, Pneumatic, 339—341 

-, Solid, 3, 34, 336 

Inlet Valves, Petrol Motor, 114—117 
Instantaneous Vaporisation Boilers, 48 
Intermediary Shaft, 275 
Iron Axle Boxes, 311 

- for Axles, 310 

-- Tyres on Damp Macadam, 252 

- - - - Sandstone, 252 

-Wood, 252 

-- - - Dry Macadam, 252 

— - - - Sandstone, 252 

- - Wood, 252 

- - Limestone, 252 

-- - - Oak, 252 

-Wet Oak, 252 

- -, Traction Co-efficient of, 246 


Jacquet and Bordet Chains, 278 
James Boiler, 6 

- Steam Cars, 6 

Jametel Transmission Goar, 286 
Jarrot, C., 569 

Jeantaud Brake Device, 358. 359 

- Electric Cab, 521 

-Cars, 521, 522, 575 

- - Coupe, 521 

- -- Coupler, 522, 523 

- -- Drojki, 222, 521 

-- - Landau, 521 

-- --- Landaulet, 222 

- - Motor, 522 

-- - Phaeton, 18 

- Petrol Car, 347, 348 

-Steerage, 323, 324 

- Suspension, 347, 348 

- Transmission Gear, 306 

- on Tyre Adherence, 252 

Jenatzy Electric Cab, 525 

- - Cars, 521, 524—526 

-Coupe, 521, 524—526 

- - Coupler, 525 

- - Delivery Car, 525 

- - Motor, 259 

- - Torpedo Car, 525 

- Pneumatic Wheels, 259 

-- Wheel Couplings, 318 

Joel Electric Motor, 227—229 
- - Voiturette, 228 
































































































































































INDEX. 


595 


Johnson Petrol Fore-carriage, 519 
Johnson and Tangye Boiler 61 
Jones, Wallace, 212 
Journal Friction, 244, 583 
Journals, Axle, 309 

-■» -» Friction Co-efficient of 311 

—• -- “ Set ” of, 311 

Jubel Brake, 360 

Julien Accumulators, 527, 528 

- Change-speed Gear, 266—268 

-- Clutch for Cars, 265, 266 

- ■ :- Motor-cycles, 264, 265 

- Lubricator, 266 

- Pump, 135 

- Radiator, 133 

Julien and Borame’s Determinations 258 
Jupiter Carburetter, 102 


Kaindler Accumulator, 218 
Kane-Pennington Petrol Motor, 112, 176 178 

- - Tricycle, 441 

Kecheur Boiler, 61 

- Steam Car, 415 

-- - Motor, 68, 69 

- Underframes, 351 

Kelly Tyres, 337 
Kennelly, Dr., 219 
Klaus Carburetter, 106 

- Petrol Motor, 443 

- System of Cooling, 136 

Knap, Georgia, 116, 121 
Knyff (see De Knyff) 

Koch Petroleum Motor, 111, 175 176 
Kraentler, 569 

Krebs, Alcohol Motor Experiments bv 33 

- Brake, 360 

- Magnetic Clutch, 269 

- Petrol Motor, 190 

- - Voiturette, 444—446 

- Transmission Gear, 445 

Krieger Electric Cars, 521—524 

- - Coupe, 521, 522 

- -- Couplers, 523, 524 

- - Motor, 226, 523 

--- Victoria, 222 

- - Vis-a-vis, 521, 522 

- Fore-carriage Transmission Gear, 272 

- Transmission Gear, 306 


La Nouvelle Steam Omnibus, 38, 371 
La Pauline Traction Engine, 42 
Laeis, 569 

Lagard Brake, 354, 355 
Lambilly (see Le Lambilly) 

Lam-Francq Hot-water Locomotive, 26 
Lamina Accumulator, 214 
Lamy, 569 

Lancashire Steam Motor Co. (see Leyland) 
Lanchester Petrol Motor, 118 
—- System of Cooling, 136 
Landau, Clarkson and Capel Steam, 415, 416 

-, Jeantaud Electric, 521 

Landry-Beyroux Brake, 357 

-Petrol Car, 468—470 

- - Motor, 159 

- Transmission Gear, 468, 469 

Lanty-Hommen-Dumas Delivery Voiturette, 
449 

- Suspension, 348, 349 

Lavenir Wheel Couplings, 318 
Lavirotte (see Audibert-Lavirotte) 
Lawson-Pennington Petrol Tractor, 514 
Le Blant Boiler, 59 

- Metal Tyres, 334 

- Steam Brake, 381 

- - Char-a-banc, 381 

- - Tractor, 380 

:- Steerage, 314, 327 


Le Blant Steering Rear-carriage 382 

- Traction Engine, 17 

~ ; Two-cylinder Steam Motor 64 

Le Brun Petrol Car, 478 

~—,- Motor, 114, 118, 167 

Lead-and-lead Accumulators, 210 
Lead-and-zinc Accumulators, 211 
Leblanc and Hutin System, 26 
Lefebvre, 564 

- Petrol Car, 483, 484 

- - Motor 483, 484 

Lehut Brake, 356 
Lemaitre, 569 
Lemoine Axle Boxes, 311 

- Driving Axles, 313 

- Naves, 331 

- Rope Brake, 356 

- Steering Axles, 327 

Lencauchez on Superheated Steam, 83 
Lenkensperger Two-pivot Fore-carriage 315 
Lenoir, 90 ’ 

- Gas Motor Car, 17 

Leo Petrol Car, 473 
-—■ Transmission Gear, 298, 299 
Lepape Carburetter, 87, 101 

- Monocylindric Motor, 161, 162 

-- Petrol Car, 472 

- - Locomotor, 472 

-- Tractor, 472 

- - Voiturette, 472 

- Suspension, 348 

- System of Cooling, 133, 136 

- Three-cylinder Motor, 160, 161 

-- Transmission Gears, 300—302 

-- Vertical Motor, 162 

- Wheel Couplings, 318 

Levassor, 18 (see also Panhard and Levassor) 
Levy on Heavy Distillerv Oils, 34 
Leyland Fire-tube Boiler, 35 

-- Steam Lurry, 384, 394—397 

-Motor, 65, 394, 396 

Licking Carburetters, 86, 37, 112 
Lifu Boiler, 47, 48 

- Burner, 47 

- Steam Lurry, 384, 391 

- - Omnibus, 382, 573 

- Two-cylinder Steam Motor, 75 

Lifu (House’s System) Steam Car, 422—424 
“ Light Oil ” (see Petrol Spirit) 

Limestone, Tyre Adherence to, 252 

Link Motion, Stephenson, 64 

Liquid Acetylene as Motive Agent, 27, 28 

-- Air Motors, 25 

-- Gas as Motive Agent, 24 

- -- Motor, New Power, 25 

- - -, Roberts, 25 

Liquid Fuel Engineering Co. (see Lifu) 
Liverpool Heavy Vehicle Trials, 36, 75, 388, 562, 
570, 571 

Lockert Petrol Fire-carriage, 518 
Locomobile Steam Cars, 422 
Locomotive Act, 1836, 15 

-, Brunton, 6 

-, Dentz Benzine, 34 

-, Heilmann Steam-electric, 551 

-, Lam-Francq Hot-water, 26 

-, Murdock, 4 

Locomotor, Lepape Petrol, 472 
Lohner Electric Coupe, 550 
Lombard Voiturette Underframe, 350 
London Electric Cabs, 550 
Longuemare Boiler Burners, 55, 56 

- Carburetter, 93, 94 

-- Ignition Tube Burner, 127 

Lotz Steam Car, 17 
Loubiere Tyre, 300 
Loyal Carburetter, 101 

- Ignition Device, 131 

- Petrol Motor, 113, 191, 192 

- - Tricycle, 435, 436 


MM 2 





































































































596 


INDEX. 


Loyal Radiator Flanges, 134 
Lubricating Axle Boxes, 311, 363 

- Bearings, 311, 312, 363 

- -, Forestier on, 312 

- -, Wick Method of, 311 

-Bevel Wheels, 363 

- Chain Wheels, 363 

-Chains, 363 

- Change-speed Gear, 363 

- Condensers, 83 

-- Cranks, 363 

- Differential Gear, 363 

- Exposed Gear, 363 

- Hinges, 363 

- Oils, Chenevier Fluidity Indicator for, 365 

- -- Fluidity of, 363 

- -, Lowering Freezing Point of, 362 

--, Mineral, 362 

- -, Stability of, 362 

- -, Vegetable, 362 

- Patent Oil Axle Boxes, 363 

- Petrol Motors, 132 

- Pinions, 363 

- 1 Steam Motors, 83 

— Transmission Gear, 266 
Lubricants, Applying, 363 
- for Bearings, 363 

— - Chain Wheels, 363 

- - Chains, 363 

-- -- Distributing Mechanism, 363 

-, Essentials of, 362 

-, Excess of, 363 

- 1 for Hinges, 363 

-, Melted Tallow, 363 

-, Oil (see Lubricating Oil) 

- for Petrol Motor Cylinders, 363 

- - Pinions, 363 

- - Steam Motor Cylinders, 363 

- - Toothed Gear, 363 

-, Viscosity of, 362 

Imbrication, 362—370 

-, Parts requiring, 362 

Lubricator, Bourdon Multiple, 369, 370 

-, Brunler, 365 

-, Consolin, 366 

-, Coup de Poing, 366 

-, Drevdal, 367—369 

-, Essentials of, 364 

-, Falling Drop, 364 

-, Hamelle, 370 

-, Hochgesand, 364 

-, Holt, 365 

-, Julien, 266 

-, Mollerup, 367 

-, Physical, 364 

-, Rising Drop, 364 

-, Terminus, 367, 368 

Lufbery Carburetter, 88 

- Electric Ignition, 121 

-' Transmission Gear, 302—304 

Lundel Electric Motor, 526 

Lurries, Steam, Comparison between, 382, 384 

Lurry, Bayley Steam, 384, 400, 401 

-, Cambier Petrol, 513 

-, Clarkson and Capel, 384, 398—400 

-, Coulthard Steam, 384, 391, 393, 394 

-, Daimler Petrol, 513 

-, De Dietrich Petrol, 507, 508, 574 

-, Foden Steam, 403—405 

-, Leyland Steam, 384, 394—397 

-, Lifu Steam, 384, 391 

-, Mann Steam, 408—410 

-, Millies Petrol, 508—512, 574 

-, Musker Steam, 384—388 

-, Nanceene Alcohol, 512, 513 

-, Negre Steam, 405 

-, Peugeot Petrol, 507 

-, Piat Steam, 405, 406 

-, Simpson and Bodman, 384, -101—403 

- J —, Thornycroft Steam, 384, 388—391 


Macadam, Damp, Tyre Adherence to, 252 

-, Dry, Tyre Adherence to, 252 

-, Resistance to Rolling on, 249 

-, Traction Co-efficient on, 246, 250 

-, Tyre Width for, 245 

Macerone and Squire Boiler, 12 

- - Steam Coach, 12 

-- - - Motor, 13 

Mackenzie Steam Car, 16 
Magnetic Clutches, 269 
Magneto-electric Machines, 121 

- -, Duflos-Clairdent, 121 

- -, Iloupied, 121 

- -, Lufbery, 121 

- -, Simms-Bosch, 121 

Maison Parisienne Petrol Car, 457 
Malandin and Delamare-Deboutteville Petrol 
Cars, 18 

Malezieux Regulation of Motor, 117 
Mann Compressed Air Car, 22 

- Steam Lurry, 408—410 

- - Tipping Cart, 407, 408 

Marchena Hot-water Motor, 25 
Markus Petrol Car, 18 
Marmonnier Petrol Motor, 582 
Marseilles, Paris to, 452, 558 
Marsh Motor Bicycle, 428 
Martyn Steam Motor, 65 
Maudsley and Field Boiler, 9 
Mauni (see De Mauni) 

Meaux International Competition, 31 
Mechanical Stoker, Musker, 387 
Mees Petrol Car, 498, 499 

- --- Motor, 166, 167 

- Transmission Gear, 499 

Megy Friction Clutch, 269 
Mekarski Tramcars, 22 
Menard Ignition, 131 
Mercier, 569 

Mercury Petrol Car, 507 
Merryweather Boiler, 398 
Merville, 569 

Metaux Accumulator, 563 
Methylated Spirit (see Alcohol) 

Metric System, VI—VIII (Preface) 

Metz Change-speed Gear, 285 
Michaux Burner, 129 

- System, 17 

Michelin, 579 

-, Experiments by, 246, 247 

- Pistons, 138 

- Pneumatic Tyres, 339, 340 

Milde Electric Car, 530, 531 

- - Delivery Car, 530 

—— ;- Omnibus, 530 

Milde-Greffe Electric Voiturette, 531, 532 
Milde-Mondos Electric Car, 529 

-- Delivery Car, 530 

- - Motor, 259 

- Transmission Gear, 308 

Milnes Change-speed Gear, 509, 511 

- Petrol Lurry, 508—512, 574 

-- Motor, 509 

—— Transmission Gear, 508, 509 
Mineral Lubricating Oil, 362 

- Spirit (see Petrol Spirit) 

Minerva Motor Bicycle, 430 

- Petrol Motor, 188 

Miniature Panhard Petrol Car, 501—504 
Mixture, Carburetted Explosive, 85, 253 
Moissan’s Calcium Carbide, 26 
Molas, Lamielle and Tessier Compressed Air 
Cars, 23 

Mollerup Automatic Lubricator, 367 
Monnard Brake, 536 

- Electric Car. 535—538 

- - Motor, 535, 536 

Montauban-Marchandier Block Transmission 
Gears, 289, 290 

Montier and Gillet Boiler, 61 



































































































































INDEX. 


597 


Moore, 4 

Moorwood-Bennet Petroleum Carburetter, 109— 
111 

Moreau Petrol Motor, 114, 135 
Morel and Gerard Quadrieyele, 439 
Morin, Experiments by, 243—246, 249, 252 
- in Paris-Berlin Race, 569 

— on Tyre Width, 330 

-—— Wheel Friction, 328 

Morris-Salom Electric Cab, 543 
- - Dogcart, 542 

■ -- Electrobat, 542, 543 

— on Transmission Losses, 252 
Morriss Brake, 355 

- Petrol Voiturette, 448 

- Transmission Gear, 293 

Mors Carburetter, 95 

- Electric Ignition, 129, 464 

- Four-cylinder Petrol Motor, 157, 158 

- Petrol Cars, 462—467 

-- Motors, 157—159, 259 

--- Phaeton, 466 

- —— Voiturette, 466 

- Reverse Motion Gear, 463 

-Transmission Gear, 462—464 

■ -Two-cylinder Petrol Motor, 158, 159 

Motay (see Du Motay) 

“ MotO'-car Spirit ” ^see Petrol Spirit) 

“ Moto-essence ” (see Petrol Spirit) 

“ Moto-naphtha ” (see Petrol Spirit) 

Motor (see Electric Motor, Petrol Motor, 
Steam Motor, etc.) 

- Bicycle, Advantages of, 426 

- -, Bluhm and Baur, 430 

- -, Boulevard, 428 

----, Centaure, 428 

- -, Centenari, 428 

- -, Constantine, 430 

- -, Daimler, 426 

- -, Disadvantages of, 426 

- -, Ducommun, 428 

- ——, Holden, 431 

- -, Marsh, 428 

- -, Minerva, 430 

- -, Motor Traction Co., 430 

- -, Orient, 428 

- -, Parfaite, 430 

--, Position of Motor on, 426 

- -, Republic, 428 

--, Royal Enfield, 428 

--, Singer, 430 

-- -, Skidding, 426 

- -, Shaw, 430 

- -, Werner, 426, 428 

- -, Wolfmuller, 426 

-, Calculating Maximum Useful Strain of, 

251 

-, - Power of, 253—255 

-, Cord Brake for, 257 

- Cycle Underframes, 350 

- Cycles (see-Motor Bicycle, Motor Tri¬ 
cycle, and Motor Quadrieyele) 

-, Electric Test for, 257 

- Fore-carriage (see Fore-carriage) 

—, Position of, on Bicycle, 426 

-, - -, - Car Underframe, 350 

-, Prony Brake for, 255—257 

—— Quadrieyele, Gladiator, 438 439 

- -, Morel and Gerard, 439 

- -, Pittsburg, 448 

-, Testing Power of, 253—255 

- Tricycle, Ariel Petrol, 437, 438 

- -, Barrow’s Electric, 542 

- -, Columbia Petrol, 449, 450 

- -, De Dion-Bouton Petrol, 86, 432 

- -, - Steam, 17 

- -, Delamere-Deboutteville, 24 

- -, Hancock Steam, 10 

- -, Hartley Compressed Air, 22 

---, Kane-Pennington, 441 


Motor Tricycle, Loyal Petrol, 435, 436 

-- -, Mur.iock Steam, 4 

- -, Petrol, 574 

- -, Rafford Electric, 520 

--, Serpollet. 17 

- -, Singer, 436, 437 

-. Societe Continentale d'Automobiles, 

436 

--, Trepardoux, 17 

--Trouve Electric, 18 

■- Wheel, Singer, 430, 431 

Motor Manufacturing Co. Delivery Van 513 

- Light Petrol Car, 500, 501 

- Miniature Panhard Petrol Car 501—504 

Motor Omnibus Syndicate Omnibus, 378, 379 

Motor Traction Co.’s Motor Bicycle, 430 

Munson Petrol-electric Car, 556 

Muntz on Alcohol, 29, 30 

Murdock Steam Tricycle, 4 

Musker Boiler, 44, 45 

- Burner, 45 

-- Mechanical Stoker, 387 

"—• Steam Lurry, 384—388 


Nanceene Alcohol Lurry, 512, 513 
Napier Petrol Car, 497 
Nave, Ballin Elastic, 342 

-, Hannoyer Bronze, 331 

-, Lemoine, 331 

Negre Four-cylinder Steam Motor, 72, 73 

-- Heavy Boiler, 44 

-- Light Boiler, 59, 60 

-- Steam Lurry, 405 

-- - Victoria, 415 

New Power Liquid Gas Motor, 25 
Newton Steam Car, 3 
Nice-Castellane Race, 562 
Nickel Ignition Tubes, 128, 127 
Nickel-iron Accumulator, 219, 220 
Nipper Springs, 344, 346 
Noel Petrol Motor, 189 
Noise of Petrol Motors, 138, 139 
Nuts for Axle Boxes, 311 


Oak, Dry, Tyre Adherence to, 252 
-—, Wet, Tyre Adherence to, 252 
Obeissante, Bollee Steam Car, 17, 315, 371 
Odour from Petrol Motors, 138, 159, 582 
Ogle Boiler and Motor, 10 

- Steam Car, 9, 10 

Oil Axle Boxes, 311 
-, Lubricating, 362 

-, -, Chenevier Fluidity Indicator for, 363 

-, -, Fluidity of, 363 

-, ——, Lowering Freezing Point of, 362 

——, -, Stability of, 362 

Oleopolymeter, Hochgesand, 364 

Oleopump, Drevdal, 369 

Omnibus, Berlin Omnibus Co. Electric, 550 

-, Bollee Steam, 17, 371 

-, Cambier Petrol, 460 

-, Cambier Petrol, 513 

-, Compagnie Generale d’Automobiles, 378 

-, Compagnie Generale de Paris, 378 

-, De Dion-Bouton Steam, 42, 280, 372, 373 

-, Gillet Steam, 378, 379 

-, Hancock Steam, 10 

-, La Nouvelle, 38. 371 

■-, Lifu Steam, 382, 573 

-, Milde Electric, 530 

-, Motor Omnibus Syndicate, 378, 379 

-, Obeissante, 17, 315, 371 

-, Panhard and Levassor Petrol, 452, 453 

——, Peugeot Petrol, 456 

-, Raffard Electric, 520 

-, Roser-Mazurier Petrol, 480 

-, Scotte Steam, 65, 281, 374, 375 

-, Serpollet Steam, 71, 378 



















































































































































598 


INDEX. 


and 


Omnibus, Tenting Petrol, 473 

-, Turgan and Fox Steam, 379, 380 

-- Tyres, Width of, 330 

-, Weidknecht Steam, 281, 376—378 

Orient Express Petrol Car, 279 

- Motor Bicvcle, 428 

Osmont, 569 

Otto Oil Engine Cycle, 113 

Paccinotti Electric Motor, 533 
Painting Petrol Motor Cylinders, 135 
Panhard, 18 

- Miniature Car, 501—504 

Panhard-Levassor (see also Daimler 
Phoenix-Daimler) 

- Bell Crank Gear, 323 

-- Petrol Cars, 450—452 

•- - -. Consumption of, 581 

-Delivery Car, 507, 578, 580 

- - Motor, 574 

- - Omnibus, 452, 453 

- - Voiturette, 444—446, 574 

-- Transmission Gear, 287, 451 

- Underframes, 351 

- Wheel Couplings, 317 

Papillon Carburetters, 88 

- Petrol Motor, 135, 167 

Papin, 3 

Paquelin Thermo-cautery, 130 
Parfaite Motor Bicycle, 430 
Paris Electric Cabs, 218 

- Hackney Vehicle Trials, 562 

Paris-Amsterdam Race, 1897, 561 
Paris-Berlin Race, 1901, 569 
Paris-Bordeaux Race, 1895, 371, 452 558 

-, 1899, 563 ’ 

-- -, 1901,584 

Paris-Chantilly Race, 33 
Paris-Dieppe Race, 452, 561 
Paris-Marseilles Race, 452, 558 
Paris-Roubaix Alcohol Trials, 568 
Paris-Rouen Race, 452, 558 
Partinium, an Aluminium Alloy, 352, 353 
Patent Oil Axle Boxes, 311 
Patin Accumulator, 213, 534 

- Electric Cars, 534, 535 

- - Motor, 224, 534 

-Phaeton, 534, 535 

-Tri-voiturette, 535 

■-- - Voiturette, 535 

-— Transmission Gear, 308 
Patton Gas-electric Tramcars, 551 
-— Petrol-electric Car, 551 
Pauline Brake, 374 

Pavement Damp Macadam, Tyre Adherence 
to, 252 

» Sandstone, Tyre Adherence, 252 
- ^— 5'° od > T y re Adherence to, 252 

, Dry Macadam, Tyre Adherence to 252 

-’ - Wood, Tyre Adherence to, 252 

'• FT - Sandstone, Tyre Adherence to, 252 

, Limestone, Tyre Adherence to, 252 

-, Oak, Tyre Adherence to, 252 

‘ > Resistance to Rolling on, 249 

-, Traction Co-efficient on 246 

-. Tyre Width for, 245 

Wet Oak, Tyre Adherence to, 252 


Petreano Petrol Motor, 172, 173, 578 

Petrol Bicycle (see Bicycle, or Motor Bicycle) 

- Brake, De Dietrich, 578, 580 

- -, Peugeot, 456 

- Car, Anglo-French, 456, 457 

- -, Anzin, 484—486 

- -, Applications of, 575, 576 

- -, Arrangement of, 425 

- -, Audibert-Lavirotte, 457 

- -, Benz, 457 

-- -, Berret, 486, 487 

- -, Bird, 507 

- ; -, Bollee (A.), 461, 462 

- -, - Torpedo, 462 

-, Bollee (L.), 487—439 

- -, Bolide, 483, 484 

- -, Brouhot, 478—480 

-- -, Cambier, 459, 460 

- -, Canello-Durkopp, 490, 492 

, Columbia, 506, 507 
•, Compagnie Generale des Automo- 


Pawl Braking Device, 361 
-— and Ratchet Gear, Brouhat, 275, 480 
Pecquer Steam Wagon, 16 
Pendulum, Desdouits Dynamometric, 583 
Pennington (see Kane-Pennington and. 

son-Pennington) 

Perisse on Alcohol, 33 
Perkins Tractor, 16 
Pescetto Accumulator, 565 
Peschard, 569 

Petreano on Alcohol, 31—33 
- Carburetter, 89 


Law- 


biles, 470—472 

-, Compagnie des Moteurs et Auto 

mobiles, 467—470 

-, Couget Demultiplicator for, 434 

-, Daimler (English), 492 

-,-(German), 489, 490 

-, Darracq, 487—489 

-, David, 105, 472 

-, De Dietrich (A. Bollee), 461, 462 

-, De Dion-Bouton, 448 

-, Delahaye, 457, 458 

-, Delbruck Demultiplicator for, 434 

-, Didier Demultiplicator for 434 

-, Ducroiset, 486, 487 

-, Duryea, 504 

-, Efficiency of, 577, 578 

-, Gaillardet, 474—477 

-, Gautler-Wehrle, 470 

-, Gohron-Brillie, 480 

-, Henroid, 477, 478 

-, Humber, 492—494 

-, Hurtu-Diligeon, 458 

-, Jeantaud, 347, 348 

-, Landry-Beyroux, 468—470 

-, Le Brun, 478 

-, Lefebvre, 483, 484 

-, Leo, 473 

-, Lepape, 472 

-, Maison Parisienne, 457 

-, Markus, 18 

-, Mees, 498, 499 

—, Mercury, 507 
—, Miniature Panhard, 501—504 
-, Mors, 462—467 

—, Motor Manufacturing Co., 500—504 

-, Napier, 497 

—. Orient Express, 279 

Panhard and Levassor, 450—452, 581 


-, Peugeot, 453—456 

-, Prices of, 574 

-, Raouval, 484—486 

-, Richard, 458, 459 

, Rochet-Schneider Benz, 457 
’ ? oc ? t . s . and Venables, 499, 500 
470 ’ Conttnentale d’Automobiles, 

—.^Societe Frangaise d’Automobiles, 

-, Stirling, 494—496 

-, Tenting, 473 

—, Teras or Gobron-Brillie, 480 
transmission Gear, 260, 261 
Efficiency, 578, 585 

TTT,.-- Losses in, 252 

-, Valle.e, 472, 473 

’ Varying Reduction Ratio of 434 
» Van eke and Roch-Brault, 504 
-, Wolseley, 496, 497 


- Coupe, Peugeot, 456, 581 

























































































































































INDEX. 


599 


Petrol Delivery Car, Anglo-French, 457 

- - -, Benz, 513 

Panhard and Levassor, 


578 


580 


507, 


-, Peugeot, 507 


Tricycle, Columbia, 449, 450 
Van, Motor Manufacturing Co., 513 
Voiturette, Lanty Kommen and 


Dumas, 449 
Fore-carriage. Advantages of, 514 

-, Amiot-Peneau, 515, 516 

-, Dore, 517, 518 

-, Johnson, 519 

-, Lookert, 518 


-, Ponsard-Ansoloni, 516, 517 

-, Pretot, 514 

-, Riancey, 518 

-, Ringelmann, 518 

-, Salles, 518 

Locomotor, Lepape, 472 
Lurry Cambier, 513 

-, De Dietrich, 507, 503, 574 

-, Daimler, 513 

-, Milnes, 508—512, 574 

-, Peugeot, 507 

Motor Accelerator, 118 

-, Ariel, 437, 438 

-, Aster, 135, 188 

-, Audibert-Lavirotte, 154 

-, Auge, Two-cylinder, 118, 164 

-, Bad Compression in, 206 

-, Balanced, 166, 167, 175, 176, 207 

-, Barisien, 442 

-, Batley, 114 

-, Beetz Rotary, 114, 201, 202 

-, Benz, 113, 259 

-, - Four-stroke Cycle, 151—153 

Two-stroke Cycle, 151 


192 


, Berrenberg, 114 
, Bollee, 259 

, - Small, 184, 185 

, -• TwO'-cylinder, 156, 157 

, Bolide. 483, 484 
, Bouche Two-cylinder, 168, 169 
Braking Effect of, 128 
, Briggs Two-stroke Cycle, 192 
Britannia, 178, 179 
Brouhot Two-cylinder, 168 
Buchet Two-cyiinder, 164, 165 
Calculating Power of, 253 
Cambier, 156 

Canello-Durkopp Vertical, 174, 175 
Charge, Proportions of, 85, 253 
Chaudun Rotary, 204—206 
Chevalet’s Attachment for, 139 
Chief Defect of, 206, 207 
Columbia, 506 

compared with other Motors, 238 
Connecting Rods, 138 

- -, Roser and Mazurier, 138 

Conrad Two-stroke Cycle, 113, 115, 

Consumption of, 20, 30, 238, 577, 578 
cooled by Desjacques System, 136 

- - Diligeon System, 137 

—— - Dufour System, 137 

--Dupont System, 133 

- -- Goret System, 137 

- - Klaus System, 136 

- -- Lanchester System, 136, 137 

-- - Lepape System, 133, 136 

- - Royer System, 133 

Cord Test for, 257 
Cost of Running, 240 
Cylinders, 131—137 

-, Air Cooled, 135 

-, Aluminium Flanges cn, 135 

-, Cast Flanges on, 135 

-, Cooling, 132—137 


- - -, Copper Flanges on, 135 


Petrol Motor Cylinders, Copper-plating, 136 

- - -, Lubricating, 132, 363 

- - --, Painting, 136 

- -- --, Sudden Cooling of, 135 

-Walls of, 132 

- - -, Water Cooling of, 133—135 

- -, Cyclone, 188, 189 

- -, Cyclope Two-cylinder, 164 

- -, Daimler, 113, 140—142 

- -, - Early, 132 

- -, -, Efficiency of, 577 

- -, Daimler-Phoenix, 142—147, 259 

- -, Dawson, 114, 180, 181 

- -, De Dion-Bouton, 259, 574 

- -, - Car, 153, 154 

- -, --Fan-cooled, 442 

--, - Steatite Plug in, 124 

- -, - Tricycle, 185—187 

- -, Decauville Two-cylinder, 187, 574 

- -, Defective Carburetting in, 206 

-- -, - Ignition in, 206 

- -, Delahaye Two-cylinder, 154, 155 

- -, Deliry, 114 

- -, Diesel, 195—201 

-- -, Disadvantages of, 238—240 

-- -- Distribution, 114—116 

- -, Dodement Rotary, 114, 202, 203 

- -, Dufour Two-stroke Cycle, 113, 115, 

118, 192 

- -, Duryea Tank, 114, 115, 195 

-- - Efficiencies, 20, 21, 238, 577 

- -, Elan Two-cylinder, 170 

- -, Esperance, 170—172 

- — Exhaust Box, 139 

-- - - Pipes, 116 

-Valves, 114—117 

- - - Valve-springs, 116, 117 

- -, Fan and Spray-cooled, 442 

- -, Faure, 179 

--, Fly-wheels of, 239 

- -, Four-stroke Cycle of, 113 

- -, Fuel Consumption of, 139 

- -, Gaillardet Air-cooled, 187, 188 

- —,-10 h.p., 164 

- -, Gardner-Sanderson Rotary, 203, 204 

-, Gautier, 114, 118, 162, 163 

- -, Gautier-Wehrle, 160, 259 

-, Gibbon, 114, 178, 179 

-- -, Gladiator, 170 

- -, Gobrom Two-stroke Cycle, 192—194 

--, Gobron-Brillie, 169, 170 

- , Goret Six-stroke Cycle, 114, 194, 195 

- -, Hautier, 170—172 

- -, Henroid Two-cylinder, 165 

- -, Herisson, 582 

- - Horizontal Cylinders, 132 

- - Horse-power, Hospitalier Calcula¬ 
tion for, 254 

— - -, Ringelmann Calculation for, 254 

— - -, Witz Calculation for, 254 

— -, Hurtu-Diligeon, 155 

— -, Ideal, 165 

— - Ignition, 118—131 

__ _____ _ OSrlTl 122 

— -, Improvements in, 207, 208, 582 

-Inlet Valves, 114—117 

—• -, Kane-Pennington, 111, 176, 178 

- -, Klaus, 443 

—. -, Koch, 111. 175, 176 

— -, Krebs, 190 

— -, Lanchester, 118 

—. -, Landry-Beyroux, 159 

— -, Le Brun Two-cylinder, 114, 118, 167 

— -, Lead of Exhaust in, 115 

— --, Lefebvre, 483, 484 

— -, Lepape Monocylindric, 161, 162 

— -, —■— Three-cylinder, 160, 161 

—. -, -- Vertical, 162 

—. --, Loyal Two-stroke Cycle, 113, 191, 192 

— —, Marmonnier, 582 



























































































































































































































































































































































i 


600 


INDEX. 


Petrol Motor, Mees Balanced, 166, 167 

- -, Milnes, 509 

- -, Minerva, 188 

--. Moment of Exhaust in, 115 

- -, Moreau, 114, 155 

-- -, Mors, 259 

- -» - Four-cylinder, 157, 158 

- -. - Two-cylinrler, 158, 159 

--, Noel, 189 

- -, Noise of, 138, 159 

- -. Non-elasticity of, 206, 207, 238, 582 

--, Non-reversibility of, 260 

--, Odour from, 138, 139, 582 

- -, Organic Efficiency of, 577 

-. Panhard and Levassor, 574 (see also 

Daimler and Phoenix-Daimler) 

- -, Papillon Two-cylinder, 135, 167 

-• -, Petreano, 172, 173, 578 

- -, Peugeot Two-cylinder, 148—151 

--, Phoenix-Daimler, 142—147, 259 

--Pistons, 137, 138 

- ---, Michelin, 138 

- -, Priestman, 21 

-- -, Progress-with, 582 

-, Pygmee Two-cylinder, 164, 484 

- -, Ravel Two-cylinder, 167, 168 

- -. Regulating Admission to, 115 

- -, - Power of, 117 

- -, - Suction of, 117 

- -, Reverse Motion with, 239 

- -, Riancey, 191 

- -, Richard Two-cylinder, 156 

-- -, Rochet-Schneider, 154 

- -, Roots and Venables, 500 

- -, Roser-Mazurier, 114, 182—184 

- -, Rossel, 114 

-, Rotary, 114, 201—206 

- -, Silencer on, 139 

--, Simms, 146—148 

- -. Six-stroke Cycle, 114, 194, 195 

- -> Societe d’Automobilisme, 174 

- -, Special Province of, 241, 242 

- -, Speed of. 115, 259 

- -, Sphinx, 188 

- -, Spray-cooled, 442 

- -, Starting, 138 

- -, Stirling, 494—496 

-, Tenting Two-cylinder, 114, 164 

-, Teras, 169, 170 

-, Thermal Efficiency of, 577 

-, Two-stroke Cycle, 115, 191—194 

-, Turgan and Foy Balanced, 166 

-, Unsatisfactory Working of, 206—208 

- used as Brake, 128, 354 

-, Vallee Two-cylinder, 163, 164 

-, Vernet Rotary. 114, 115, 118, 203 

- Vertical Cylinders, 132 

-, Vibration of, 138, 207 

-, Vincke Roch-Brault, 165 

-, Weight of, 238 

- without Carburetter, 111 

Motor-cycle, Grivel, 88 
Omnibus, Cambier, 460, 513 

-, Panhard and Levassor, 452, 453 

-, Peugeot, 456 

-, Roser-Mazurier, 480—482 

-, Tenting, 473 

Phaeton, Mors, 466 
Quadricycle, Gladiator, 438. 459 

-, Morel and Gerard, 439 

-, Pittsburg, 443 

Spirit, 84 

-, Calorific Value of, 20, 238 

- compared with Alcohol, 29—34 

- - - Petroleum, 85, 241 

-, Composition of. 30 


Cost of using, 31, 32 
Density of, 30, 84 
English, 84 
Evaporation of, 30 


Petrol Spirit, French, 84 

- -, Increasing Densitv of, 85 

-- as Motive Agent, 20 

--, Motor Consumption cf, 20, 30 

--, Synonyms for, 84 

- —, Temperature Affects Density of, 84 

-Tractor, Best, 514 

- -, Clarke, 514 

- -, Lawson-Pennington, 514 

- -, Lepape, 472 

- Tricycle, 574 

-, Ariel, 437, 438 

- -, Columbia, 449, 450 

- -, De Dion-Bouton, 86, 132 

- -, -, Consumption of, 581 

- -, Kane-Pennington, 441 

-——, Loyal, 435, 436 

- -, Peugeot, 434. 435 

- -, Singer, 436, 437 

- -, Societe Continentale d’Automobiles, 

436 

- Tri-voiturette. Hurtu, 440 

- Volturette, 439 

- --, Applications of, 574 

- -, Barisien, 442, 443 

-, Bollee, 271, 439. 440 

--. Compagnie Frangaise des Cycles, 441 

- -, Cyrano, 443, 444 

- --, De Dion-Bouton, 446—448 

- -, Decauville, 441, 574 

- -, Delahave, 448 

-- -, Elan, 441, 442 

--, Farman, 351, 441 

- --■, Faugere, 448 

- -, Foucher and Delachanal, 448 

--•, Gaillardet, 473 

--, Goret, 448 

- -, Krebs, 444—446 

-- -, Lanty Hommen and Dumas, 449 

- -, Lepape, 472 

- -, Morisse. 448 

- -, Mors, 466 

- -, Panhard and Levassor, 444—446, 574 

- -, Peugeot, 448 

- --, Phoebe, 188 

- -, Pittsburg, 448 

- -, Pop, 444 

- -, Serin, 440 

- -, Tauzin, 88, 442 

- -, Turgan and Foy, 448 

-- Underframes, 350, 351 

- -. Walker and Hutton, 448 

- -, Wolseley, 496, ^97 

Petrol-electric Car, Advantages of, 551 

- -, Dowsing, 552 

--, Munson, 556 

- -, Patton, 551 

--, Pieper, 552—555 

- -. Vedovelli-Priesiley, 542 

—— Goods Wagon, Fisher, 556 
Petroleum, Advantages of, as fuel, 237 

- Burners, 62 

- -, Blaxton, 58 

--. Clarkson and Capel, 56 

- -, Lifu, 47 

- -. Longuemare, 55, 56 

- -, Musker, 45 

-, Calorific Value of, 20, 237 

- Carburetters, 100—111 

-- compared with Alcohol, 31 

- --Petrol Spirit, 85, 240 

-, Consumption of, 20 

-, Cost of using, 31 

- as Motive Agent. 20 

-— Motor (see Petrol Motor! 

Peugeot Admission Valve 150 

- Carburetters, 97—99 ’ 

- Demultiplicator, 434 

- Electric Ignition, 456 

- Ignition Plug, 125 












































































































































































































































































INDEX. 


601 


Peugeot Petrol Brake, 456 

-- Car, 18, 453—456 

- - ■—Efficiency, etc,, of, 580 

- - Coupe, 456 

- - -, Maintaining, 581 

- -- Delivery Car, 507 

- - Lurry, 507 

- - Motor, 148—150 

--Omnibus, 456 

- - Tricycle, 454, 435 

- - Voiturette, 443 

- Steerage, 322 

- Transmission Gear, 455 

- Underframe, 351 

Phaeton, Columbia Electric, 547 

-, Jeantaud Electric, 18 

-, Mors Petrol, 466 

-, Patin Electric, 534, 535 

-, Pouchain Electric, 18, 520 

-, Serpollet Steam, 410—412 

--.Summer and Ogle, 9 

Philipson (see Toward and Philipson) 

Phoebe Petrol Voiturette, 188 
Phoebus Accumulator, 211, 215, 218 
Phoenix Accumulator, 563 
Phcenix-Daimler Carburetter, 90 

- Petrol Motor, 142—147, 259 

Piat Boiler, 405 

- Friction Clutch, 268 

- Steam Lurry, 405 

Picard Ball Bearing Axle, 312 
Pieper Petrol-electric Car, 552—555 
Pinion Transmission Gear, 271—274 
Pinions, Lubricating, 363 
Pinson, 564 
Pisca, 21, 211 

■- Accumulator, 215, 218, 219 

Pistons, Petrol Motor, 137, 138 
Pittsburg Petrol Voiturette, 448 

- - Quadricycle Voiturette, 448 

Pivoted Fore-carriage Steerage, 314, 327 
Planet Gearing, 16 
Plante Accumulator Grids, 211 
Plate Brakes, 356 

- Friction Clutch, 270 

Plated Tyres, 341 
Platinum Ignition Tubes, 126, 127 
Plugs, Ignition or Sparking (see Ignition Plug 
or Sparking Plug) 

Pneumatic Tyres, 339^-341 

- -, Clincher, 339 

--, Clipper, 340 

- -, Continental, 339 

- -, Dunlop, 339 

--, Engelbert, 339 

- -, Eole, 339 

- -, Gall us, 339 

- -, Hartford, 545 

--, Michelin, 339, 340 

- -, Talbot, 339 

- -, Thompson, 16 

—— -, Traction Co-efficient of, 246 

-Wheel, Hall, 342 

- -, Jenatzy, 259 

Poids Lourds (see Heavy Vehicle Trials) 

Poliak Accumulator, 563 
Poncelet, 255 

Ponsard-Ansolini Petrol Fore-carriage, 516, 517 
Pop Petrol Voiturette, 444 
Pope Accumulator, 563 

- Carburetter, 88 

Porcelain, Asbestos, 122 

- Fracturing in Ignition Plug, 123 

- Ignition Tubes, 126 

Postel-Vinay Electric Motor, 259, 529, 531 
Pot Boiler, 401 

Pouchain Electric Phaeton, 13, 520 

-- Steerage, 314 

Pressed Tyres, 336 
Pretot Carburetter, 104 


Pretot Petrol Fore-carriage, 514 

- - - Transmission Gear, 291. 292 

Priestman Motor Efficiency, 21 
Priestman and Wright, 322 
Profiled Steel Underframes, 350 
Progress still desired, 582, 583 
Prony Brake Test, 255—257 
Protected Tyres, 341 
Pulley Belts, 270 

- Brakes, 356 

Pulleys, Change-speed, 270 
Pulvis Accumulator, 215, 217 
Pumps, Abeille, 135 

-, Benoit, 135 

-, Dalifol and Thomas, 135 

-, Gardner-Serpollet, 414 

-, Greindel, 203 

-, Grouvelle and Arqueinbourg, 134 

-, Julien, 135 

-, Radiator, 134, 135 

Push-foot Schemes, 5, 6 
Pygmee Petrol Motor, 164, 484 


Quadricycle, Gladiator Petrol, 438, 439 

-, Morel and Gerard Petrol, 439 

-•, Pittsburg Petrol, 448 

Quadrilateral Wheel Couplings, 317 


Race (see also Trial) 

-, Paris-Amsterdam, 561 

-, Paris-Berlin, 569 

-, Paris-Bordeaux, 558, 563, 564 

-, Nice-Castellane, 562 

-, Paris-Chantilly, 33 

-, Paris-Dieppe, 561 

-, Paris-Marseilles, 558 

-, Paris-Roubaix Alcohol, 568 

-, Paris-Rouen, 452, 558 

Radiator, 133 

-- Flanges, Loyal, 134 

-, Grouvelle and Arquembourg, 133 

-, Julien, 134 * 

-- Pumps, 134, 135 

- Tubes, 133 

Rafford, Accumulator Experiments by, 18 
—— Electric Omnibus, 520 
- - Tricycle, 520 

Railway Companies and Early Artomobilism, 
15 

Ramsay and Wildgoose, 1 
Raouval Petrol Car, 484—486 

-- Steering Gear, 486 

- Transmission Gear, 485 

Rapin Carburetter Float, 86 
Ravel, Acetylene Motor Test by, 28 

- Boiler, 36, 37 

- Carburetter, 168 

- on Compressed Air, 23 

-- Gas Motor, 17 

- Petrol Motor, 167. 168 

- Steam Tricycle, 63, 259 

- Two-cylinder Steam Motor, 63 

Read, Nathaniel, 4 
Rechniewski Electric Motor, 520 
Reclus Ignition Plug, 122, 123 
Renault, L., 569 

- Brake, 359, 360 

Renolds Chains, 277, 278 
Republic Motor Bicycle, 428 
Resistance due to Air, 247, 248 

- - - Curves, 247 

- - - Gradient, 246, 247 

- - - Rolling, 245—249 

Rheostat used with Electric Motor, 230 
Riancey Petrol Fore-carriage, 518 

-- Motor, 191 

Richard, F., 25 
-, G., Carburetter, 96, 97 
























































































































602 


INDEX. 


Richard Electric Car, 535 

- - Ignition, 459 

•- - Motor, 535 

- Ignition Plug. 124, 125 

■ -• Petrol Car, 458 , 459 

- - Motor, 156 

Richmond Heavy Vehicle Trials, 564, 565 
Ricketts Three-wheel Road Steamers, 15 
Rigolly, 569 

Riker Accumulators, 544 
- Electric Cab, 543, 544 

■ - - Dogcart, 543, 544 

-- -- Motor, 544 

Ringelmann, 301 

- Brake Test, 257 

- Experiments, 29—32 

Petrol Fore-carriage, 


518 


Rings for Axle Boxes, 311 
Road, Influence of Condition of, 244, 245 

-, Macadam, Resistance to Rolling on 249 

-. -, Traction Co-efficient on, 246, 250 

■-, -, Tyre Width for, 245 

-, Paved, Resistance to Rolling on 249 

--.-» Traction Co-efficient on, 246, 250 

Tyre Width for, 245 


-, Soft, Tyre Width for, 245 

Roberts’ Liquid Gas Motor, 25 
Robison, Dr. John, 3 
Rochefort Coil, 122 
Rochet Carburetter, 94 

- Transmission Gear, 271 

Rochet-Schneider Benz Car 457 

- Petrol Motor, 154 

Roger, Introduction of Benz Cars by 457 

- Transmission Gear, 294 

•- Wheel Couplings, 318 

Rolland, 569 

Roller Bearings, 536, 537 
- Chains, 275 

Rolling of Car, Resistance to, 243—249 
Rolls, 569 

Roots and Venables Petrol Car, 499, 500 

~ - - - Motor, 500 

Jtope Brakes, 356—360 

--■, Defect of, 358 

Special Province of 


357 


Roser-Mazurier Connecting Rods 138 

- Petrol Motor, 114, 182—184 

■- - Omnibus, 480—482 

Rossel Coil, 122 

- Petrol Motor, 114 

- Transmission Gear, 271 

- Underframes, 351 

Rotary Epicycloidal Steam Motors, 79 80 

•- Gas Motor, 78 

- Petrol Motors, 114, 201—206 

- Steam Motors, 78—83 

Rothschild Devil-drag, 561 
Roubaix, Paris to, 568 
Rouen, Paris to, 452, 558 
Rowan Boiler, 40 
Royal Enfield Motor Bicycle, 428 
Royer System of Cooling, 133 
Rudeaux, 564 

Ruhmkorff Coil for Ignition, 122 
Russel Steam Coaches, 12, 13 


Sales and Braby Carburetter, 103 
Salles Petrol Fire-carriage, 518 
Salom (see Morris and Salom) 
Sandstone, Tyre Adherence to, 252 
Sanz, 564 

Saturator, Sales and Braby, 103 
Sauvage, 197 
Savery, 3 

Say Refining Works 242 
Schmaltzer Brake, 356 
Schroter, 197 
Scotching Shoe, 354 


Scotte Boiler, 38—40 

- Steam Cars, 573 

-- - Hauling Car, 375, 376 

-Van, 376 

- - Omnibus, 65, 374 

- - - Transmission Gear, 281 

- - Road Train, 17 

- Two-cylinder Steam Motor, 64, 259 

Secondary Batteries (see Accumulators) 
Seguir System, 17 

Series Excitation of Electric Motor, 223 
Serin Petrol Voiturette, 440 
Serpollet Boilers, 48—55 

- Burners (Longuemare System), 55, 56 

- Car, Forestier’s Criticism of, 410 

- Four-seat Car of 1888, 17 

- Four-cylinder Steam Motor, 69—72 

- Motor, Speed of, 259 

-Omnibus, 49, 71, 378 

- Phaeton, 410—412 

- Pumps, 52, 54 

- Six-cylinder Steam Motor, 73 

-- Two-cylinder Steam Motors, 65—68 

- Tricycle, 17 

Shaft, Intermediary, 275 
Shaw Motor Bicycle, 430 
Shoe Brakes, 354—356 
Shoes, Axle, 310 
-, Brake, 355 

Shunt Excitation of Electric Motor 223 
Silencer on Petrol Motors, 139 
Simms Petrol Motor, 146—148 
Simonds Ball Bearing Axle, 312 
Simpson-Bodman Boiler, 57, 58 

- Steam Lurry. 384, 401—403 

- - Motor, 69 

Sinchalle, 569 

Singer Motor Wheel, 430, 431 

- Petrol Bicycle, 430 

- - Tricycle, 436, 437 

Sire Process of Plating Cylinders, 136 
Skidding of Cars, 309, 310, 440 

- -- Motor Bicycles, 426 

Slide Mechanism, Bourlet, 318—520 

-- Springs, 344 

Small, 4 

Smith, Wythe, 212 

Societe Anonyme pour le Travail Electrique 
o .,^ Ie | :ailx - Accumulator made by, 218 
Societe d Automobilisme Petrol Motor 174 
Societe Continentale d’Automobiles’ Petrol 
Car, 470 

Societe Fran ? aise d’Automobiles Petrol Car, 


5 x.vies, OOH, 0.50 

Sooting of Ignition Plug, 122 
Soreau, 238, 577 
Southall Ignition, 131 
Sparking Cam of Petrol Motor 122 
- Plug, 122 

- -. Bassee and Michel, 122 

- -. Fremy and Mare, 124 

- -•. Helical, 123 

-, Peugeot, 125 

> Porcelain fracturing in, 123 
-, Reclus, 122, 123 

- -. Richard, 124, 125 

-- -, Sooting of, 122 

“— ,-. Steatite, 124 

Sparks for Ignition, 129 
Specific Gravity (see Density) 

“— Dower, Definition of, 19 

Regulator, Electric Motor, 223, 233 
speed-changmg (see also Transmission Ge; 

- Gear, ’Ariel, 292—294 

-> De Dion-Bouton, 284 285 

- -, Ducroiset, 487 

> PDis and Steward, 302 

- -, Jametel, 286 




































































































INDEX. 


603 


Speed-changing Gear, Lepape, 299 

•--, Lubricating, 363 

-, Mees, 499 

-, Metz, 285 

-, Milnes, 509, 511 

-, Montauban-Marchandier, 289, 290 

-, Pretot, 291, 292 

-, Raouval, 485 

-, Valentin, 470 

-, Webb, 300 

Pulley Belts, 270 
Pulleys, 270 


Sperry Electric Cars, 548, 549 

Sphinx Petrol Motor, 188 

Spiral Springs, 345, 346 

Spirit (see Petrol Spirit, Alcohol, etc.) 

Spokes, Steel, 332—334 

-, Wooden, 331—333 

Spray-cooled Petrol Motor, 442 
Spring-propelled Vehicles, 1 
Springs, Bail and Pozzi, 345 
Cee, 344, 345 
Coiled, 345, 346 
Economical Effect of, 243 
Feraud, 347 
Half-nipper, 344 
Hannoyer, 345 
Hauts-fourneaux, 346 
Hinged, 344, 345 
Nipper, 344, 346 
Slide, 344 
Spiral, 345, 346 

-, Straight, with Rolls, 343 

-, Suspension, 343 

--, Essentials of, 343 

-, -, Steel for, 343 

-, -, Vibrations with, 346 

-, Transversal, 346, 347 

Squire and Macerone Boiler, 12 

-- --- - Coach, 12 

- - - Motor, 13 

Stanley Boiler, 48, 419 

-- Burners, 419 

•-- Regulator, 420 

- Steam Car, 419 

--- --Motor, 65, 420 

Starting, Driving Strain needed at, 248 

-- Petrol Motors, 138 

Steam as Motive Power, 31 

- Boilers (see Boilers) 

- Brake, Automobile Association, 36 

- -, De Dion-Bouton, 579, 580 

-, Le Blant, 382 


Brake-wagonette, Toward and Philipson, 
416 


- Car, Applications of, 573 

- -, Arrangement of, 371 

- -, Automobile Manufacturing Co.’s, 

416—419 

-, Bollee, 17, 315 

- -, Burstall and Hall, 6, 7 

- -, Carrett and Marshall, 15 

- -, Clarkson and Cap el, 415, 416 

--, Dallery, 4 

- -, De Dion-Bouton, 573 

- -, Efficiency of, 577 

- --, Evans, 4 

• -, Gardner-Serpollet, 412—414 

■ -, Griffiths, 5 

■ -, Gurney, 7, 8 

• --, Holt, 16 

■ -, House’s System, 422—424 

• -, James, 6 

._ p p Vi p n y* dll R 

-, Lifu (House’s System), 422—424 

•-, Locomobile, 422 

-, Lotz, 17 

-, Mackenzie, 16 

-, Michaux, 17 

-, Negre, 415 


Steam Car, Newton, 3 

-, Ogle, 9 

-- -, Read, 4 

- -, Ricketts’ Three-wheel Road, 15 

- -, Scotte, 573 

- -, Seguir, 17 

-- -, Serpollet, 410—412 

- - Service, Dance, 9 

-- -, Stanley, 419—422 

- -, Summers, 9 

- -, Symington, 4 

-- - Transmission Gear, 281 

- - - - Efficiency, 577 

- - - -, Losses in, 252 

- -, Trevithick, 4 

- Cart, Mann, 407, 408 

- Char-a-banc, Le Blant, 581 

- Coach, Church, 12, 13 

- -, Gibbs and Chaplin, 13 

- -, Macerone and Squire, 12 

- Driving Fore-carriages, Turgan and Foy, 

424 

- —— Fore-carriages, 424 

-- Hauling Car (see Steam Tractor) 

- Landau, Clarkson and Capel, 415, 416 

- Lurries Compared, 382, 384 

- Lurry, Bayley, 384, 400, 401 

- -, Clarkson and Capel, 384, 398—400 

-, Coulthard, 384, 391, 393, 394 

- -, Foden, 403—405 

--, Leyland, 384, 394—397 

-, Lifu, 384, 391 

-- -, Mann, 408—410 

-- -, Musker, 384—388 

- -, Negre, 405 

-- -, Piat, 405, 406 

-- -, Simpson and Bodman, 384, 401—403 

--, Thorny croft, 384, 588—591 

-- Motor, A. G. System, 79 

-, -, Arbel-Tihon Rotary, 80, 81 

--, Automobile Manufacturing Co., 417, 

418 

- -, Bollee Two-cylinder, 64 

- -—, Bourdon-Weidknecht, 75—77 

--, Brake Test for, 255—257 

- -, Burstall and Hall, 7 

--, Clarkson and Capel Six-cylinder, 73, 

74 

- - compared with Petrol Motor, 234—242 

-- -, Compound, 82, 83 

- -, Condensers for, 83 

- ——, Consumption of, 83, 235 

- -, Coulthard, 77 

- - Cylinders, Lubricating, 363 

- -, De Dion-Bouton, 74, 75, 259 

- -, De Lambilly Rotary, 81, 82 

- -, Double-expansion Alternating, 74 

- - Efficiency, 235, 236, 576 

- - -, Dwelshauvers-Dery on, 576 

--, Elasticity of, 234, 2oo 

- —, Essentials of, 63 

- —, Fire Risk with, 83 

- , Foden, 404 

— -, Four-cylinder, 69—73 

— -, Freakley, 65 

— -, Gautier-Wehrle Rotary, 78 

— -, General Considerations on, 234—237 

— -, Gerard Epicycloidal, 80 

-, Gillett, 74 

— -, Hancock, 11 

— -, Hero’s, 3 

— -, Kecheur, 68. 69 

— -, Le Blant Two-cylinder, 64 

— -, Lencauchez’s Recommendations on, 

83 

— -, Leyland Compound, 65, 594, 396 

— -, Lubricating, 83, 363 

— -, Lifu, 75 

— -, Macerone and Squire, 13 

— -, Martyn, 65 

























































































































































































































































604 


INDEX. 


Steam Lurry, Negre Four-cylinder, 72, 73 

- -, Ogle, 10 

- -—, Organic Efficiency of, 576 

- -, Ravel Two-cylinder, 63 

- -, Reversing, 260, 

--, Rotary, 78—33 

- - 1 - Epacycloidal, 79, 80 

- -, Scotte Two-cylinder, 64, 259 

--, Serpollet, 259 

--, - Four-cylinder, 69—72 

- -,-Six-cylinder, 73 

- -, - Two-cylinder, 65—68 

--, Simple Expansion Alternating, 63 

- -, Simplicity in, 82 

- -, Simpson and Rodman, 69 

- -, Six-cylinder, 73, 74 

- -, Special Province of, 241, 242 

--, Speeds of, 259 

--, Stanley, 65, 420 

--, Steam-hammer Type, 65, 74 

- -, Straker, 401 

- -, Summers, 10 

- - for Superheated Steam, 65 

- -, Susine, 20 

- -, Thermal Efficiency of, 575, 576 

- -, Thornycroft, 75 

- -, Three-cylinder, 68, 69, 75 

- -, Toward and Philipson, 382 

—— -, Two-cylinder, 63—68, 74, 75 

-: -, Weidknecht, 64 

- -, Weidknecht-Bourdon, 75—77 

--Omnibus, Bollee, 17, 371 

- -, Compagnie Generale cl'Automobiles, 

378 

- -. Compagnie Generate cle Paris, 378 

--, De Dion-Bouton, 42, 280, 372, 373 

-, Gillett, 378, 379 

- -, Hancock, 10 

- -, La NouveUe. 38, 371 

- -, Lifu, 382, 573 

- -, Motor Omnibus Syndicate, 378, 379 

- -, Obeissante, 17, 315, 371 

-, Scotte, 65, 281, 374, 375 

—— -, Serpollet, 71, 378 

- —, Turgan and Foy, 379, 380 

- -, Weidknecht, 281, 376—378 

- Phaeton, Serpollet, 410—412 

- -, Summer and Ogle, 9 

- Tipping Cart, Mann, 407, 408 

- Tractor, De Dion-Bouton, 373, 374 

- -, Le Blant, 380 

- -, Perkins, 16 

-, Scotte, 375, 376 

- -, Thornycroft, 388 

- -, Toward and Philipson, 382 

- Tricycle, De Dion-Bouton, 17 

- -, Hancock, 10 

- -, Murdock, 4 

- -, Ravel, 63, 259 

- -, Serpollet, 17 

- ——, Trepardoux, 17 

-Trolley, Cugnot, 1—3 

- Turbine applied to Automobiles, 83 

- -, G. Banca, 3 

- Victoria, Negre, 415 

-Voiturette, Gardner-Serpollet, 412—414 

- Wagon, Pecqueur, 16 

Steam-electric Locomotive, Heilmann, 551 
Steam-hammer Type Motors, 65, 74 
Steam-horse, Perkins, 16 
Steatite Ignition Plug, 124 
Steel for Boiler Construction, 62 

- - Suspension Springs, 343 

--Tyres, 334 

-, Profiled, Underframes of, 350 

- Spokes, 332—334 

-Tube Underframes, 350 

-useless for Axles, 310 

- Wheels, 334 

Steerage (see Steering Gear) 


Steering Axles, 309 

- -, Lemoine, 327 

- -, Two-pivot, 327 

- Gear, Ackermann Two-pivot Fore-car¬ 
riage, 315 

- —— Ackermann-Jeantaud, 315, 316 

- -, Bicycle Mounting, 314 

-, Bird, 327 

-, Bollee Old, 321, 322 

--, Bourlet, 316, 318—320, 583 

--, Brillie Epicycloidal, 325—327 

-— -, Chain and Toothed, 321 

- -, Compagnie des Ventures Electro- 

mobiles, 327 

--, Controlling, 323 

- -, Davis, 320 

--, De Coninck Epicycloidal, 325 

---, Delahaye, 322 

- -, Dore, 314, 327 » 

--, Ducliatelet, 327 

- -, Duryea, 315 

--, Epicycloidal, 325--327 

--, Iireversible, 323 

- -, .Teantaud, 323, 324 

- -, Le Blant, 314, 327 

--, Panhard and Levassor Bell Crank, 323 

- -, Peugeot, 322 

- -, Pivoted Fore-carriage, 314, 327 

--, Pouchain, 314 

— -, Priestman and Wright, 322 

- —, Raouval, 486 

--Slide Mechanism Bourlet, 318—320 

- -, Sydenham and Walkinson, 318 

--, Toothed, 321, 622 

---Transmission, 323 

- - -, Bell Crank, 323 

-- -, Two-pivot Broken Axle, 314 

--, - Fore-carriage, 315 

---, Worm, 314, 324 

Steering Rear-carriage, Le Blant, 382 
Stephenson on Adherence, 6 

- Link Motion, 64 

Still Accumulator, 216, 217 

-Electric Motor, 226, 227 

Stirling Petrol Car, 494—486 

-- - Motor, 494—496 

Stoker, Musker Mechanical, 387 
Storage Batteries (see Accumulators) 

Straight Springs with Rolls, 343 
Straker Steam Motor, 401 
Sturgess Electric Cab, 543 
Summers Boiler, 10 

-- Steam Car, 9, 10 

- - Motor, 10 

Superheated Steam Motor, 65 
Surface Carburetters, 86, 87, ll2 
Susine Steam Motor, 20 
Suspension, 346—349 

-, Columbia Car, 347 

, Compagnie Generale des Automobiles, 
347, 348 

-, Double, 348 

-, Forestier on, 347 

-, Jeantaud, 347, 348 

-, Lanty Hommen and Dumas, 348, 349 

-, Lepape, 348 

-, Pliant Transmission with, 346 

-, Simple, 346—348 

~— Springs (see Springs) 

Sydenham and Walkinson Steerage, 318 
Symington Steam Car, 4 


Tables: Accumulators, 215, 521, 563 

-: Automobile Club Trials, 1900, 565, 566 

-: Chains, 277 

-: Ciiicago Trials, 559 

Conipagnie Frangaise des Voitures Elec- 
tromobiles Coupler, 526 
-: Daimler-Phoenix Motor, 146 









































































































































































































INDEX. 


<j05 


Tables: Draullette Coupler, 538 

-: De Dion-Bouton Boiler, 42 

-: - Petrol Cars, 484 

-: - Steam Motors, 75 

-: Electric Car, 222 

-■: Fulmen Accumulators, 521 

-: Gardner-Serpollet Steam Cars, 412 

-: Glasgow Trials, 572 

■-: Jeantaud Electric Cars, 521 

-: - - Coupler, 522, 523 

-: Jenatzy Electric Cars, 521 

•-: - - Connections, 525 

-: Krieger Electric Cars, 521 

-: -- - Coupler, 523 

-: Liverpool Heavy Vehicle Trials, 562, 570, 

571 

-: Methylated Spirit, its Properties, etc., 30 

-: Milde Coupler, 531 

-: Mol as Lamielle and Tessier Compressed 

Air Car, 24 

-: Motor Consumptions of Spirit, 30 

-: Nice-Castellane Race, 562 

-: Paris Hackney Vehicle Trials, 562 

-■: Paris-Amsterdam, 561 

-■: Paris-Berlin Race, 569 

-•: Paris-Bordeaux Races, 558, 563, 564 

-: Paris-Dieppe Race, 561 

-■: Paris-Marseilles Race, 558 

-: Paris-Roubaix Alcohol Trials, 568 

-: Paris-Rouen Race, 558 

-: Petrol Motor Cylinders, 116 

-: - - Exhaust Valves, 113 

-: -- Spirit Densities, Properties, etc., 30, 

84 

-: Phoenix-Daimler Motor, 146 

-: Richmond Heavy Vehicle Trials, 564, 565 

-: Tour de France, 563 

-: Traction Co-efficient of Tyres, 246 

-: - - - Cars, 250 

-: Versailles Heavy Vehicle Trials, 560 

Talbot Pneumatic Tyre, 339 
Tallow as Lubricant, 363 
Tangye and Johnson Boiler, 61 
Tank Petrol Motor, Duryea, 195 
Tauzin Petrol Voiturette, 62, 441 
Tenting Carburetter, 87 

- Petrol Car, 473 

- - Motor, 114, 164 

- - Omnibus. 473 

- Transmission Gear, 300 

Teras (see Gobron-Brillie) ^ 

Terminus Lubricator, 367, 368 
Testing Motor Power Electrically, 257 

- -- - with Cord Brake, 255—257 

- - --Prony Brake, 257 

Teste 569 

Teuf-teuf Protected Tyre, 341 
Thermal Efficiency of Boiler, 575, 576 

-- - - Diesel Motor, 578 

- - —- Petrol Motor, 577 

-- - - Steam Motor, 575, 576 

Thermo-cautery Ignition, 130 
Thery, 564 
Theson, Jean, 1 

Thibault on Air Resistance, 247, 248 
Thirion Boiler, 40 
Thompson Pneumatic Tyre, 16 
Thornycroft Bell Crank Drive, 390 

- Boiler, 46 

- Hauled Dray, 388 

- Steam Lurry. 384, 388—391 

- - Motor, 75 

- Transmission Gear, 30o 

Times Herald Race, 20 

Tipping Cart, Mann Steam, 407, 403 

Toothed Gear, Lubricating, 363 

-Steering Gear, 321, 322 

- Transmission Gear, 271—274 

Torpedo Car, Bollee Petrol, 462 
— -, Jenatzy Electric, 526 


Torque of Electric Motor, 222. 223 
Torrilhon Tyres, 336, 338 
Tour de France, 1899, 563 
Touring, Petrol Car for, 574 
Toward and Philipson Boiler, 61, 382 

- Steam Brake-wagonette, 416 

-- - Motor, 382 

- -- Tractor, 382 

Traction Co-efficient of Iron Tyres, 246 

- -- - Pneumatic Tyres, 246 

-- Co-efficients, 245, 246, 250 

- Engine, De Dion-Bouton, 42 

Dietz, 17 


-, Best Petrol, 514 

Tractor, Clarke Petrol, 514 

-, De Dion-Bouton Steam, 373, 374 

-, Lawson-Pennington Petrol, 514 

-, Le Blant Steam, 380 

-, Lepape Petrol, 472 

-, Perkins, 16 

-, Scotte Steam. 374, 375 

-, Thornycroft Steam, 388 

-, Toward and Philipson, 382 

Tramcar, Electric, 209 

-, Gas-electric, 551 

-, Lutrig Gas-propelled, 24 

-, Mekarski, 22 

-- Motor, Daimler Benzine, 34 

-, Patton Gas-electric, 551 

Transmission Gear, Ariel, 292—294 
Auble, 305 

Audibert-Lavirotte, 294 
Belt, 270, 271 
Bird, 300 
Block, 289, 290 
A. Bollee Car, 279 
- Voiturette, 271, 296—298 


mo 


285 


L. Bollee, 488 
Bonnafous. 262, 263 
Buchet, 295 
Chain, 275—279 

Clutch, 261—270 (see also Clutch) 
Columbia, 307, 308 

Compagnie Generale des Auto- 
iles, 281 

Coulthard, 281, 393 
Cugnot Trolley, 2, 259 
Daimler, 490 
Darracq, 488 
De Bovet, 269 
De Dietrich, 298 

De Dion-Bouton Petrol Car, 280, 283— 


Steam Omnibus, 280 
Tricycle, 282 


Defects, 239 
Delahaye, 294 
Differential, 274, 275, 305 

-, Device to replace, 480 

Diligeon, 298 
Dore, 306, 307 
Duryea, 505 

Efficiency of, 577—579, 583 
Electric Car, 305 
Ellis and Steward, 302 
Epicycloidal, 272 273 
Friction Plate, 270, 300—302 
Gaillardet, 287 
Gautier-Wehrle, 263, 264, 280 
Hall, 270 

Herschmann, 269 
Hump age, 272, 273 
Intermediary Shaft, 275 
Jametel, 286 
Jeantaud, 303 
Jenatzy. 259 
Julien Car, 265, 263 

- Motor-cycle, 264—233 

Krebs, 445 
Krieger, .306 












































































































































































































606 


INDEX . 


Transmission Gear, Krieger Fore-carriage, 272 

- -, Landry-Beyroux, 468, 469 

-, Leo, 298, 299 

- -, Lepape, 300—302 

- -, Losses due to, 252 

- -, Lubricating, 266, 363 

- -, Lufbery, 302—304 

- -, Mees, 499 

- -, Megy, 269 

--, Metz, 285 

- -, Milde-Mondos, 308 

--, Milnes, 508, 509 

- -, Mixed, 296 

- -, Montauban-Marchandier, 289, 290 

- -, Morris, 298 

- -, Mors, 462—464 

- -, Panhard and Levassor, 287, 451 

- -, Pat in, 308 

- -, Petrol Car, 260, 261 

- -, Peugeot, 455 

- -, Pi at, 268 

- -, Pinion, 271—274 

- -, Pliant, 346 

- -, Pretot Fore-carriage, 291, 292 

--, Raouval, 485 

■--, Ravel-Tilbury, 259 

- -, Rochet, 271 

- -•, Roger, 294 

- -, Rossel, 271 

- -, Scotte Omnibus, 281 

- -, Steam Car, 281 

- -, Steerage, 322, 323 

- -, Stirling, 494 

- -, Tenting, 300 

- -, Thornycroft, 305, 390 

-, Toothed, 271—274 

--, Villard and Bonnafous, 262, 263 

-, Webb, 300 

- -, Weidknecht Omnibus, 281 

Trepardoux Steam Tricycle, etc., 17 
Trevithick Steam Car, 4 
Trial (see also Race) 

-, Accumulator, 563 

-, Alcohol, 568 

-, Automobile Club, 1900, 566, 567 

-, Chicago, 559 

-, Glasgow, 572 

--, Heavy Vehicle, 562, 564, 570, 571 

-, Hill-climbing, 565, 566, 570—572 

-, Liverpool, 562, 570, 571 

-, Paris Hackney Vehicle, 562 

-, Paris-Roubaix Alcohol, 563 

-, Richmond, 564, 565 

-, Tour de France, 563 

-, Versailles, 560 

Triangular Drive, Coulthard, 393 
Tricycle, Ariel Petrol, 437, 438 

-, Ayrton Electric, 18 

-, Barrows Electric, 542 

-, Columbia Petrol, 449, 450 

-, De Dion-Bouton Petrol, 86, 432, 581 

-,-Steam, 17 

-, Delamere-Deboutteville, 24 

-, Hancock Steam, 10 

-, Hartley Compressed Air, 22 

-, Kane-Pennington, 441 

-, Loyal Motor, 435, 436 

-, Murdock Steam, 4 

-, Petrol, 574 

-, Peugeot, 434, 435 

-, Raffard Electric, 520 

-, Ravel Steam, 63, 259 

-, Serpollet, 17 

-, Singer Motor, 436, 437 

-, Societe Continental d’Automobiles, 436 

•-, Trepardoux, 17 

-, Trouve Electric, 18 

Triouleyre, 79 

Tripping of Car, 309, 310, 440 
- of Motor Bicycle, 426 


Tri-voiturette, Hurtu, 440 

-, Patin Electric, 535 

Trolley, Cugnot, 1—3 

-Electric Traction, 209 

Trouve Electric Tricycle, 13 
Tube Ignition, 126—129 

- Steel Underframes, 350 

Tubes, Boiler, Gills on, 61 

-, Ignition, 126, 127, 129 

-, Radiator, 133 

Tubular Boilers, 35 
Tudor Accumulator, 209, 563 
Tuileries, 1898, 525 

-, 1899, 552 

Turbine, Banca Steam, 3 

-, Steam applied to Automobiles, 83 

Turckheim (see De Turckheim) 

Turgan, 569 

Turgan and Foy Boiler, 46 

-- Petrol Motor, 166 

- - Voiturette, 448 

- Steam Fore-carriage, 46, 424 

- - Omnibus, 379 

Turnpike Tolls on Early Automobiles, 15 
Turr and Chertemps Acetylene Motor, 28 
Two-pivot Fo>re-carriage, Ackermann, 315 

- Steering Axles, 327 

Tyre Brakes, 354—356 

Tyres and Ground, Adherence between, 251, 252 

-, Bouquillon, 336 

-, Brabant on, 334 

-, Cementing on, 336 

—, Chameroy, 341 

-, Clincher Pneumatic, 339 

-, - Solid, 336 

-, Clipper Pneumatic, 340 

-, Compound, 338 

-, Contact of, with Ground, 330, 340 

-, Continental Pneumatic, 339 

-, De Mauni on Width of, 330 

-, Ducasble, 337, 339 

-, Dunlop Pneumatic, 539 

-, Dupuit on Width of, 330 

-, Engelbert Pneumatic, 339 

-, Eole Pneumatic, 339 

——, Fastening on, 334, 336, 337 

-, Callus Pneumatic, 339 

-, Hannoyer, 336 

-, Hartford Pneumatic, 545 

-, Heavy Car, 334 

-, Indiarubber Hollow, 338 

-, - Solid, 334, 336 

-, Influence of Width of, 244, 245 

-, Iron, Traction Co-efficient of, 246 

-, Jeantaud on Adherence of, 252 

-, Kelly, 337 

-, Le Blant Metal, 334 

-, Light Car, 334 

-, Loubiere, 336 

-, Metal, 332, 334 

-, Michelin Pneumatic, 339, 340 

-, Morin on Width of, 330 

-, Omnibus, Width of, 330 

-, Plated, 341 

-, Pneumatic, 339—341 

-, -, De Mauni on, 340, 341 

-, -, Traction Co-efficient of, 246 

-, Pressed, 336 

-, Protected, 341 

-, Screwed on, 536 

-, Steel for, 334 

-, Talbot Pneumatic, 339 

-, Teuf-teuf, 341 

-, Torrilhon, 336, 338 

-, Testing Power AvailaDle at, 258 

-, Thompson Pneumatic, 16 

-, Vinet, 336 

-, Vital Pneumatic, 339 

-, Width of, 330 

-»-> -, f°r Macadam, 245 



















































































































































































INDEX. 


607 


Tyres, Width of, for Paved Roads, 245 

~ r~~ “—> - Soft, Roads, 245 

-, Wired on, 337 


Uhlmann, 564 
Underframes, 349—352 

-, Bollee Voiturette, 350 

-, Brouliot, 352 

-, Car, 351 

-•, Darracq, 351 

-, De Dietrich, 352 

-, Farman Voiturette, 351 

-, Gobron-Brillie, 351 

-, Kecheur, 351 

-, Lombard Voiturette, 351 

-, Motor-cycle, 550 

, Panhard and Levassor, 552 

-, Peugeot, 351 

-, Position of Motor on, 350 

-, Profiled Steel, 350 

-» - - Wood-lined, 350 

-, Rossel, 357 

-, Tube Steel, 350 

-, Voiturette, 350 

-, Weidknecht, 352 

-, Wooden, 350 


Valentin Boiler, 60 

- Change-speed Gear, 470 

Vallee Petrol Cars, 472, 473 

- : — Motor, 163, 164 

Vails (F.S.V.) Accumulator, 215, 216 
Valve Gear, Walschaerl’s, 64 
Valves, Exhaust, 114—117 
-, Inlet, 114—117 

Van (see also Cart, Delivery Car, and Lurry) 

-, Motor Manufacturing Co. Delivery 513 

-, Molas, Lamielle and Tessier, 23 

Van der Heyden, 569 
Varietur Chains, 277, 278 
Vaucauson’s Spring-driven Car, 1 
Vedovelli-Priestley Electric Cab, 540—542 

- -- Coupler, 540 

- Petrol-electric Car, 542 

Vegetable Lubricating Oil, 362 
Verbiest’s Aeolipile, 3 
Vermot Ball Bearing Axle, 312 
Vernet Petrol Rotary Motor, 114, 115, 118, 203 
Versailles Heavy Vehicle Trials, 36, 42, 49, 71 
72, 242, 453, 560 ’ ’ ’ 

Vibration of Petrol Motors, 138, 207 
Victoria, Negre Steam, 415 
Vieille on Acetylene, 27 
Vilain Method'of Cooling Cylinders, 137 
Vincke-Roch-Brault Petrol Car, 504 

- --Motor, 165 

Villard and Bonnafous Band Clutch, 262, 263 
Vinet Tyre, 336 

Vis-a-vis, Krieger Eiectric, 521, 522 
Vital Pneumatic Tyre, 339 
Vivian, 4 
Voigt, 564, t>69 

Volk Electric Voiturette, 18 
Voiturette, Barisien Petrol, 442, 443 

-, Bollee Petrol, 271, 439, M0 

-, Compagnie Frangaise des Cycles, 441 

-, Cyrano Petrol, 443, 444 

-, De Dion-Bouton Petrol. 446—448 

-, Decauville Petrol, 441, 574 

-, Delahaye Petrol, 448 

-, Elan Petrol, 441, 442 

-, Electric, Disadvantages of, 532 

-, Farman Petrol, 351, 441 

-, Faugere Petrol, 448 

-, Foucher-Delachanal, 443 

-, Goret Petrol, 448 

-, Gaillardet Petrol, 473 

-, Gardner-Serpollet Steam, 412—414 


Voiturette, Joel Electric, 228 

-, Krebs Petrol, 444—446 

' > Lanty Hommen and Dumas 449 

-, Lepape Petrol, 472 

-, Milde-Greffe Electric, 531, 532 

-, Moriss Petrol, 448 

-. Mors Petrol, 466 

, Panhard and Levassor, 444—446 574 

--» Patin Electric, 555 

-, Peugeot Petrol, 448 

-, Phoebe Petrol, 188 

-, Pittsburg Petrol, 443 

-, Pop Petrol, 444 

-, Serin Petrol, 440 

-, Tauzin Petrol, 83, 442 

-, Turgan and Foy Petrol, 448 

- Underframes, 350, 351 

-, Volk Electric, 18 

-, Walker and Hutton Petrol, 448 

—, Wolseley Petrel, 496, 497 

Vuste and Rupprecht Accumulator, 550 


Wagon, Fisher Petrol-electric, 556 

-, Pecquer Steam, 16 

Wagonette-brake, Toward and Philipson 

Walker and Hutton Petrol Voiturette, 448 

Walkmson Steerage, 318 

Walschaert’s Valve Gear, 64 

War Office Trials of 1901, 403 508 

Warped Wheels, 329 

Water Condensers for Steam Motors, 83 

- Cooling of Petrol Motors, 135—135 

-, Cylinder Jacket, Cooling, 133, 134 

-, Radiators for Cooling, 133 

Water-tube Boilers, 36, 61 
Watt, James, 3, 4 
Webb Transmission Gear, 300 
Weidknecht Boiler, 43, 44 

-- Brake Device, 357 

- Steam Omnibus, 376—373 


- - - Transmission Gear, 281 

- Two-cylinder Steam Motor, 64 

- Underframes, 350 

Weidknecbt-Bourdon Steam Motor, 75—77 
Werner, 569 

- Motor Bicycle, 426, 428 

- -- -. Egerton’s Ride on, 425 

Westinghouse Boiler, 40 
Wheel Couplings, 316 

- -, Ackermann-Jeantaud, 317 

-- -, Benz, 318 

- -, Bollee, 318 

- -, Bourlet, 317 

- -, Double Quadrilateral, 317 

- -, Concave Pentagon, 318 

- -, Jenatzy, 318 

-- -, Lavenir, 318 

-- -, Lepape, 318 

- -, Panhard and Levassor, 317 

- -, Roger, 318 

- -, Quadrilateral, 317 

Wheels, Ballin Naves of, 342 

-, Beguin Elastic, 342 

-, Bending of, 329 

-, Big, Advantages and Disadvantages 

243, 328, 329 5 

-, -, Difficulty of Turning with, 329 

-, Considerations on, 583 

-, Creusot Wooden, 332 

-, De Mauni Elastic, 342 

-, Diameter of, 328, 329 

-, Dishing of, 329—332 

-, Driving, Effort developed at, 243 

-,-, Independence of, 260 

-, Elastic, 342 

-, - Naves of, 342 

-, Experiments with, 243 

-, Felloes of, 331—337 

-, Forestier on, 329 


416 


of, 























































































































. 608 


INDEX, 


Wheels, Gerard Wooden, 332 

•-, Hall Pneumatic, 342 

-, Jenatzy Pneumatic, 259 

-, Lemoine Naves of, 333 

-, Metal, 334 

-, - Tyres of, 332 

-, Morin on Friction of, 328 

-, Motor, 430, 431 

-, Naves of, 331, 333, 342 

-, Peugeot, 333 

-, Pneumatic, 342 

-, Requisite Strength of, 328 

-, Resistance to, 243, 329 

-, Singer Motor, 430, 431 

-, Solidity of, 328 

-, Spokes of, 331—333 

-, Steel Spoke, 332—334 

-, Testing Power Available at, 258 

-, Tyres of (see Tyres) 

-, Warping of, 329 

-, Wooden Spoke, 331, 332 

Wick Carburetters, 87, 88 


Wick Method of Lubricating Bearings, 31 
Wildgoose and Ramsay, 1 
Wilson’s Calcium Carbide, 26 
Wind-driven Vehicles, 1 
Witz, 20, 240, 577 
Wolff Regulator, 86 
Wolfmuller Motor Bicycle, 426 
Wolselev Petrol Car or Voiturette, 496, 497 
Wood Pavement, Damp, Tyre Adherence to, 252 

- -, Dry, Tyre Adherence to, 252 

Wooden Felloes, 331 

- Spokes, 331—333 

- Underframes, 350 

-- Wheels, 331, 332 

Wood-lined Steel Underframes, 350 

Worby Agricultural Self-moving Machine, 14 

Worm Steerage, 314, 324 

Wright Compressed Air Car, 22 

Wydt Electro-catalytic Ignition, 150 

Zinc-and-copper Accumulators, 211 
Zinc-and-lead Accumulators, 211 


1 


Printed uv Cassell & Company, Limited, La Belle Sauvage, Ludgate Hill, London, E.C. 






















































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